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Draft:Sound correspondences between English accents

This page contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Sound correspondences between English accents can be described systematically using phonetic realizations of diaphonemes. Though the descriptions of the phonemes in most accents of English often differ to some extent, in general there are systematic correspondences between them which can be described accordingly, just as their phonetic qualities can be described using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). This page aims to sufficiently describe the phonetics and phonology of all documented varieties of English, including obsolete accents like Older Southern American English.

Consonants

[edit]
English consonants
Diaphoneme[i] Phones Examples
p pʰ pen
p spin, tip
b b but
b̥ web
t t, tʰ sting, two
ɾ,[ii] ʔ,[iii] t̞[iv] better
d d do
d̥, ɾ[v] odd, daddy
tʃ tʃʰ chair
tʃ teach, nature
dʒ dʒ gin, joy
d̥ʒ̊ edge
k k skin, unique, thick
kʰ cat, kill, queen
ɡ ɡ go, get
ɡ̊ beg
f f, ɸ[vi] fool, enough, leaf, off, photo
v v, β[vii] voice, verve
v̥ have, of, verve
θ θ, t̪, f[viii] thing, teeth
ð ð, ð̥, d̪, v[ix] this, breathe, father
s s see, city, pass
z z zoo
z̥ rose
ʃ ʃ she, sure, session, emotion, leash
ʒ ʒ genre, pleasure, equation, seizure
ʒ̊ beige
h h, ɦ,[x] ç[xi] ham, hue
m m, ɱ[xii] man, ham
n n no, tin
ŋ ŋ ringer, sing,[xiii] finger, drink
l l, ɫ,[xiv] l̥, ɫ̥,[xv] ɤ, o,[xvi] left, bell, sable, please
r ɹʷ, ɹ, ɾ,[xvii] r,[xviii] ɻ, ɹ̥ʷ, ɹ̥, ɾ̥, ɻ̊,[xv] ʋ[xix] run, very, probably
w w, ʍ[xv] we, queen
j j yes, Mayan
hw ʍ, w[xx] what
Marginal consonants
x x, χ, k, kʰ, h, ɦ loch,[xxi] ugh[xxii]
ç ç[xxiii] Hugh
ʔ ʔ uh-oh
ɬ ɬ, l Llangefni,[xxiv] hlala gahle[xxv][1]
ɮ ɮ ibandla[xxv][2]
  1. ^ This is a compromise IPA transcription, which covers most dialects of English.
  2. ^ /t/, is pronounced [ɾ] in some positions in American English, Australian English, and sometimes in English English.
  3. ^ /t/ is pronounced [ʔ] in some positions in Scottish English, English English, American English and Australian English.
  4. ^ /t/ is pronounced [t̞] non-initially in Hiberno-English.
  5. ^ /d/ is pronounced [ɾ] if preceded and followed by vowels in General American and Australian English.
  6. ^ The labiodental fricative /f/ is often pronounced as bilabial [ɸ] after the bilabials /p/, /b/, and /m/, as in up-front GA: [ʌpˈɸɹʌnt], Cub fan GA: [ˈkʰʌbɸæn], tomfoolery GA: [ˌtʰɑmˈɸuɫəɹi].
  7. ^ The labiodental fricative /v/ is often pronounced as bilabial [β] after the bilabials /p/, /b/, and /m/, as in upvote GA: [ˈʌpβəʊt], obviate GA: [ˈɑbβiˌeɪt], Humvee GA: [ˈhʌmβi].
  8. ^ /θ/ is pronounced as a dental stop [t̪] in Hiberno-English, Newfoundland English, Indian English, and New York English, merges with /f/ in some varieties of English English, and merges with /t/ in some varieties of Caribbean English. The dental stop [t̪] also occurs in other dialects as an allophone of /θ/.
  9. ^ /ð/ is pronounced as a dental stop [d̪] in Hiberno-English, Newfoundland English, Indian English, and New York English, merges with /v/ in some varieties of English English, and merges with /d/ in some varieties of Caribbean English. [d̪] also occurs in other dialects as an allophone of /ð/.
  10. ^ The glottal fricative /h/ is often pronounced as voiced [ɦ] between vowel sounds and after voiced consonants. Initial voiced [ɦ] occurs in some accents of the Southern Hemisphere.
  11. ^ /h/ is pronounced [ç] before the palatal approximant /j/, sometimes even replacing the cluster /hj/, and sometimes before high front vowels.
  12. ^ The bilabial nasal /m/ is often pronounced as labiodental [ɱ] before /f/ and /v/, as in symphony GA: [ˈsɪɱfəni], circumvent GA: [ˌsɝkəɱˈvɛnt], some value GA: [ˌsʌɱ‿ˈvæɫju̟].
  13. ^ In some dialects, such as Brummie, words like ringer [ˈɹɪŋə], sing [sɪŋ], which have a velar nasal [ŋ] in most dialects, are pronounced with an additional /ɡ/, like "finger": [ˈɹɪŋɡə].
  14. ^ Velarized [ɫ] traditionally does not occur in Hiberno-English; clear or plain [l] does not occur in Australian, New Zealand, Scottish, or American English. RP, some other English accents, and South African English, however, have clear [l] in syllable onsets and dark [ɫ] in syllable rimes.
  15. ^ a b c Sonorants are voiceless after a fortis (voiceless) stop at the beginning of a stressed syllable.
  16. ^ L-vocalization in which l is pronounced as a kind of a back vowel ([ɤ] or [o], or non-syllabic [ɤ̯, o̯], forming a diphthong with the preceding vowel) occurs in New Zealand English and many regional accents, such as AAVE, Cockney, New York English, Estuary English, Pittsburgh English, Standard Singapore English.
  17. ^ /r/ is pronounced as a tap [ɾ] in some varieties of Scottish, Irish, Indian, Welsh, Northern England and South African English.
  18. ^ The alveolar trill [r] only occurs in some varieties of Scottish, Welsh, Indian and South African English.
  19. ^ R-labialization, in which r is pronounced as [ʋ], is found in some accents in Southern England.
  20. ^ Some dialects, such as Scottish English, Irish English, and many American South and New England dialects, distinguish voiceless [ʍ] from voiced [w]; see wine–whine merger and voiceless labiovelar approximant.
  21. ^ Marginal in most accents, and otherwise merged with /k/, see Lock–loch merger.
  22. ^ This common English interjection is usually pronounced with [x] in unscripted spoken English, but it is most often read /ʌɡ/ or /ʌk/
  23. ^ /hj/ can be /ç/ in Conservative RP.
  24. ^ ɬ exists in Welsh English as an allophone of /l/ in Welsh loan words. Other dialects usually replace it with l.
  25. ^ a b This sound exists in South African English in Zulu loan words.

Vowels

[edit]

This section uses Wells' lexical sets as a baseline analysis for the different diaphonemes of English, following their widespread use. Since their exclusive basis in the prestige accents of the UK and the US makes them inadequate for describing many other accents, the tables below make up for their shortcomings, where they occur.

Formatting

[edit]

For ease of navigation, Wells' sets are split up into checked and free vowels, vowels before historical /r/ and reduced vowels, then alphabetized according to the spellings of their respective vowels.

In each table, there are three columns next to each accent, which include as many or as few of these options as necessary:

  • The phonetic Realizations of the table's set using IPA, which are split up further into
    • Existing sets which make up Wells' set: sets which Wells merged in creating his sets,
    • Allophonic splits: splits which are purely conditioned by their environment and therefore not phonemic,
    • and Phonemic splits: splits which vary more than their environment can account for and therefore not allophonic.
  • Splits which may occur inside the table's set are split up further into
    • those which split Inside Wells' sets,
    • and those which split Into Wells' sets.
  • Mergers which may include the table's set are split up further into
    • those which alter the merged set's realization Towards [the table's set]: so the realization of the table's set becomes the new realization of the merged set,
    • those which alter the set's realization Away from [the table's set]: so the realization of the merged set becomes the new realization of the table's set,
    • and those which alter the set's realization Towards a new realization: so both the merged and the table's set's realizations become a new realization.

The Splits and Mergers columns use Green tickY, Red XN, and Orange tickY to indicate that the split/merger is present (Green tickY), is not present (Red XN), or is partially present (Orange tickY + a note). These columns may not be merged horizontally because this would lead to prioritizing one accent's description over a region's, which would make it harder to compare accents at a glance, thus contradicting the purpose of this article. For example, merging horizontally might make it easier to see that one accent has several mergers while making it harder to see if several accents all have the same merger.

Checked vowels

[edit]

TRAP

[edit]

The TRAP lexical set originally included the BATH lexical set, though Wells' sets separate it since it merged independently with PALM in RP following the TRAP-BATH split.[3] In some parts of England and Wales, and accordingly in Australian English, TRAP further split into bad and lad (described in the table as ham&bad-lad).[4] In some parts of the US and Canada, TRAP instead split into ham and not-ham (described in the table as ham-bad&lad).[5] Most other accents preserve TRAP (and even the earlier TRAP&BATH) whole.

Accent Realizations Splits Mergers
Into Wells' sets Towards TRAP
Allophonic splits Phonemic splits BATH PALM
ham bad lad TRAP-BATH split
American English African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)[citation needed] Non-Rhotic ɛː~ɛə̯~eə̯ æ~ɛː~ɛə̯ Red XN Red XN
Rhotic
Boston accent[citation needed] Older ɪə̯~eə̯~ɛɐ̯

[i]

æ~ɛə̯ Green tickY
Younger Red XN
Cajun English[citation needed] æ
California English[citation needed] Northern eə~ɛə ɛ~æ~a~ä
Southern æ~æ̞
Chicano English[citation needed] æ~ɛə̯~eə̯ æ
General American English[6][7][8] eə̯~ɛə̯~æ

[i]

Good American Speech[citation needed] æ
Inland Northern American English[citation needed] eə̯~ɪə̯
Miami English[citation needed] æ
New York accent[citation needed] Non-Rhotic ɛə̯~eə̯~ɪə̯

[i]

æ, ɛə̯~eə̯~ɪə̯

[i]

Green tickY
Older
Rhotic
Philadelphia English[citation needed] æə̯~ɛə̯~eə̯

[i]

æ
Southern American English[citation needed] Older æɛæ~eə æ~æɛæ~ɐɛɐ
Non-Rhotic eə̯~æjə

[i]

æ~æjə~æ̠ɛæ̠ Red XN
Rhotic
Australian English[9][10] Cultivated æː æ Green tickY
General æː~ɛː a̝~æ
Broad æ̝ː~ɛː~e̞ː æ~ɛ
Bahamian English[citation needed] æ~a Red XN
Bajan English[citation needed] a Green tickY
Canadian English[11] æ~ɛə̯

[i]

æ~a̝ Red XN
Cameroonian English[12] a̽ Green tickY
Channel Islands English[citation needed] æ Green tickY Red XN
English in England Brummie dialect[13] a Red XN
English in Southern England Cockney[citation needed] æ~ɛ~ɛɪ æ~ɛ Green tickY
Estuary English[citation needed] æ~a~ɛ̞
Multicultural London English (MLE)[14] ɐ̞
West Country English[citation needed] æː~aː Red XN
English in Northern England[citation needed] Cumbrian dialect a~ä
Geordie a
Lancashire dialect a~ä
Manchester dialect
Pitmatic
Scouse a
Yorkshire dialect a~ä
Received Pronunciation (RP) Conservative[15][16] æ Green tickY
Standard Southern British English (SSBE)[17] aː a
Fiji English[citation needed] æ
Hiberno-English[18] Ulster English Belfast äː~a Red XN
Mid-Ulster
Traditional
Ulster Scots dialect
South-West Irish English æ Green tickY
Dublin English Local
New a
Standard Irish English æ~a
Indian English[19] æ~ɛ
Newfoundland English[20] æ
New Zealand English[21][22] Cultivated æ
General ɛ
Broad ɛ̝
Palauan English[citation needed] æ Red XN
Scottish English[23] ä Green tickY
Solomon Islands English[citation needed] ɑ~æ Green tickY Red XN
South African English[24][25] Cultivated æ
General a~æ
Broad æ~ɛ~e̞
Singaporean Standard English[26] ɛ
Welsh English[27] Abercraf English a Red XN
Port Talbot English aː a
Cardiff English[13] aː~æː a~æ Orange tickY[ii]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g In most of the United States (with high dialectal variation), and to a lesser degree in Canada, special /æ/ tensing systems occur.
  2. ^ Wells (1982, p.387): "The situation in the BATH words is not altogether clear. In general the short vowel predominates, so that the situation in most of Wales is like that in the North of England [...]. In the south-east of the country, however, including Cardiff, the long vowel is established in at least some of the BATH words e.g. class, grass, while in others there is sociolinguistic variation between long and short , e.g. chance, fast." See also Robert Penhallurick's A Handbook of Varieties of English, Volume 1.

BATH

[edit]
Accent Realizations Splits Mergers
Into Wells' sets Towards BATH
TRAP PALM
TRAP-BATH split
American English African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)[citation needed] Non-Rhotic æ~ɛː~ɛə̯ Red XN Red XN
Rhotic
Boston accent[citation needed] Older ä~a Green tickY Green tickY
Younger æ~ɛə̯ Red XN Red XN
Cajun English[citation needed] æ
California English[citation needed] Northern ɛ~æ~a~ä
Southern æ~æ̞
Chicano English[citation needed] æ
General American English[6][7][8]
Good American Speech[citation needed]
Inland Northern American English[citation needed] eə̯~ɪə̯
Miami English[citation needed] æ
New York accent[citation needed] Non-Rhotic ɛə̯~eə̯~ɪə̯ Green tickY
Older
Rhotic
Philadelphia English[citation needed] æə̯~ɛə̯~eə̯
Southern American English[citation needed] Older æɛ~æe
Non-Rhotic æ~æjə~æ̠ɛæ̠ Red XN
Rhotic
Australian English[9][10] Cultivated äː Green tickY Green tickY
General äː~ɐː
Broad
Bahamian English[citation needed] æ~a Red XN Red XN
Bajan English[citation needed] aː Green tickY Green tickY
Canadian English[11] æ~a̝ Red XN Red XN
Cameroonian English[12] a̽ Green tickY
Channel Islands English[citation needed] ɑː Green tickY Red XN
English in England Brummie dialect[13] a Red XN
English in Southern England Cockney[citation needed] ɑː Green tickY Green tickY
Estuary English[citation needed] ɑː~ɑ̟ː~ɑ̹ː
Multicultural London English (MLE)[14] ɑː
West Country English[citation needed] æː~aː Red XN Red XN
English in Northern England[citation needed] Cumbrian dialect a~ä
Geordie a
Lancashire dialect a~ä
Manchester dialect
Pitmatic
Scouse a
Yorkshire dialect a~ä
Received Pronunciation (RP) Conservative[15][16] ɑ̟ː Green tickY Green tickY
Standard Southern British English (SSBE)[17] ɑ̈ː~ʌ̞ː
Fiji English[citation needed] a~ɑ Red XN
Hiberno-English[18] Ulster English Belfast äː~a Red XN
Mid-Ulster
Traditional
Ulster Scots dialect
South-West Irish English æː~aː Green tickY Green tickY
Dublin English Local
New aː
Standard Irish English
Indian English[19] äː
Newfoundland English[20] æː Red XN
New Zealand English[21][22] Cultivated ɐː~äː Green tickY
General
Broad
Palauan English[citation needed] æ Red XN Red XN
Scottish English[23] ä Green tickY
Solomon Islands English[citation needed] ɑ Green tickY Red XN
South African English[24][25] Cultivated ɑ̟ː Green tickY
General ɑː
Broad ɒː~ɔː
Singaporean Standard English[26] ä
Welsh English[27] Abercraf English a Red XN Red XN
Port Talbot English
Cardiff English[13] a~æ Orange tickY[i]
  1. ^ Wells (1982, p.387): "The situation in the BATH words is not altogether clear. In general the short vowel predominates, so that the situation in most of Wales is like that in the North of England [...]. In the south-east of the country, however, including Cardiff, the long vowel is established in at least some of the BATH words e.g. class, grass, while in others there is sociolinguistic variation between long and short , e.g. chance, fast." See also Robert Penhallurick's A Handbook of Varieties of English, Volume 1.

DRESS

[edit]

KIT

[edit]
Accent Realizations Mergers
Away from KIT Towards KIT
Allophonic splits commA happY
kit bit
American English African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)[citation needed] Non-Rhotic ɪ~iə̯ Red XN Red XN
Rhotic
Boston accent[citation needed] Older ɪ~ɪ̞~ɪ̈
Younger
Cajun English[citation needed] ɪ
California English[citation needed] Northern ɪ̞
Southern
Chicano English[citation needed] ɪ
General American English[28][29][30] ɪ~ɪ̞~ɪ̈
Good American Speech[citation needed] ɪ~ɪ̈
Inland Northern American English[citation needed]
Miami English[citation needed]
New York accent[citation needed] Non-Rhotic
Older
Rhotic
Philadelphia English[citation needed]
Southern American English[citation needed] Older ɪ
Non-Rhotic ɪ~ɪjə~iə̯
Rhotic
Australian English[31][32] Cultivated ɪ
General ɪ~i
Broad i
Bahamian English[citation needed] ɪ Green tickY
Bajan English[citation needed] Red XN
Canadian English[33]
Cameroonian English[34] ɪ~i
Channel Islands English[citation needed] ɪ
English in England Brummie dialect[35] ɪ~i
English in Southern England Cockney[citation needed] ɪ
Estuary English[citation needed] ɪ~ɪ̈
Multicultural London English (MLE)[36]
West Country English[citation needed] ɪ
English in Northern England[citation needed] Cumbrian dialect
Geordie
Lancashire dialect
Manchester dialect
Pitmatic
Scouse
Yorkshire dialect
Received Pronunciation (RP) Conservative[37][38] Green tickY
Standard Southern British English (SSBE)[39] ɪ̞ Red XN
Fiji English[citation needed] ɪ
Hiberno-English[40] Ulster English Belfast ɪ̈~ë
Mid-Ulster
Traditional ə~ɘ
Ulster Scots dialect ɛ
South-West Irish English ɪ
Dublin English Local
New
Standard Irish English
Indian English[41]
Newfoundland English[20]
New Zealand English[42][43] Cultivated ɪ̈
General ə Green tickY
Broad
Palauan English[citation needed] ɪ Red XN
Scottish English[44] ɪ~ë̞~ə~ʌ
Solomon Islands English[citation needed] ɪ
South African English[45][46] Cultivated Green tickY
General ɪ ɪ̈ Red XN
Broad i ə Green tickY
Singapore English[47] ɪ~i Red XN
Welsh English[48] Abercraf English ɪ
Port Talbot English
Cardiff English[35] ɪ̞

LOT

[edit]
Accent Realizations Splits Mergers
Into Wells' sets Towards LOT
CLOTH PALM THOUGHT
LOT-CLOTH split father-bother merger cot-caught merger[i]
American English African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)[citation needed] Non-Rhotic a~ä~ɑ Green tickY Green tickY Red XN
Rhotic
Boston accent[citation needed] Older ɒ~ɑ Red XN Red XN Green tickY
Younger
Cajun English[citation needed] ɑ Green tickY Green tickY Red XN
California English[citation needed] Northern ä~ɑ~ɒ Red XN Green tickY
Southern
Chicano English[citation needed] ä~a
General American English[6][7][8] ɑ~ä Green tickY Red XN
Good American Speech[citation needed] ɒ Red XN Red XN
Inland Northern American English[citation needed] a~ä Green tickY Green tickY
Miami English[citation needed] ɑ
New York accent[citation needed] Non-Rhotic ɑ~ä
Older
Rhotic
Philadelphia English[citation needed] ɑ
Southern American English[citation needed] Older
Non-Rhotic
Rhotic
Australian English[9][10] Cultivated ɒ Red XN Red XN
General ɒ~ɔ
Broad
Bahamian English[citation needed] ɑ Green tickY Green tickY
Bajan English[citation needed] ɒ~ɑ Red XN
Canadian English[11] Red XN Green tickY Green tickY
Cameroonian English[12] ɔ Red XN
Channel Islands English[citation needed] ɒ Green tickY Red XN
English in England Brummie dialect[13] ä~ɒ~ɔ̈~ɔ Red XN
English in Southern England Cockney[citation needed] ɒ~ɔ
Estuary English[citation needed] ɒ~ɒ̈
Multicultural London English (MLE)[14] ɒ~ɔ
West Country English[citation needed]
English in Northern England[citation needed] Cumbrian dialect
Geordie ɒ~ɑ̠
Lancashire dialect ɒ~ɔ
Manchester dialect
Pitmatic
Scouse ɒ
Yorkshire dialect ɒ~ɔ
Received Pronunciation (RP) Conservative[15][16] ɒ
Standard Southern British English (SSBE)[17] ɔ
Fiji English[citation needed] Green tickY
Hiberno-English[18] Ulster English Belfast ɒ~ɑ~ä Green tickY Red XN
Mid-Ulster
Traditional äː Red XN Green tickY
Ulster Scots dialect ɔː
South-West Irish English ä Green tickY Red XN
Dublin English Local
New ɑ~ɒ~ɔ
Standard Irish English ɑ
Indian English[19] ɔ~ɒ~ä Red XN Red XN
Newfoundland English[20] ɑ Green tickY
New Zealand English[21][22] Cultivated ɒ~ɔ Red XN
General
Broad
Palauan English[citation needed] ɑ Green tickY
Scottish English[23] ɔ
Solomon Islands English[citation needed]
South African English[24][25] Cultivated ɒ̈ Green tickY Red XN
General ɒ̈~ʌ̈
Broad ɒ̈
Singaporean Standard English[26] ɔ Red XN Green tickY
Welsh English[27] Abercraf English ɒ Red XN
Port Talbot English
Cardiff English[13] ɑ̟
  1. ^ The cot-caught merger necessarily undoes a previous LOT-CLOTH split.

CLOTH

[edit]
Accent Realizations Splits Mergers
Into Wells' sets Towards CLOTH
LOT PALM THOUGHT
LOT-CLOTH split (through father-bother merger)[i]
American English African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)[citation needed] Non-Rhotic ɒ(ɔ̯)~ɔ(ʊ̯)~ɔə̯ Green tickY Red XN Green tickY
Rhotic
Boston accent[citation needed] Older ɒ~ɑ Red XN
Younger
Cajun English[citation needed] a Green tickY
California English[citation needed] Northern ä~ɑ~ɒ Red XN Green tickY
Southern
Chicano English[citation needed] ä~a
General American English[6][7][8] ɒ~ɔ, ɑ Green tickY Red XN
Good American Speech[citation needed] ɒ Red XN Red XN
Inland Northern American English[citation needed] ɒ~ɑ Green tickY Green tickY
Miami English[citation needed] ɑ~ɔ
New York accent[citation needed] Non-Rhotic ɔə̯~oə̯~ʊə̯
Older
Rhotic
Philadelphia English[citation needed] ɑ
Southern American English[citation needed] Older
Non-Rhotic
Rhotic
Australian English[9][10] Cultivated ɒ Red XN Red XN
General ɒ~ɔ
Broad
Bahamian English[citation needed] ɔ Green tickY Green tickY
Bajan English[citation needed] ɒː Red XN
Canadian English[11] ɒ~ɑ Red XN Green tickY Green tickY
Cameroonian English[12] ɔ Red XN
Channel Islands English[citation needed] ɒː Green tickY Red XN
English in England Brummie dialect[13] ä~ɒ~ɔ̈~ɔ Red XN
English in Southern England Cockney[citation needed] ɒ~ɔ
Estuary English[citation needed] ɒ~ɒ̈
Multicultural London English (MLE)[14] ɒ~ɔ
West Country English[citation needed]
English in Northern England[citation needed] Cumbrian dialect
Geordie ɒ~ɑ̠
Lancashire dialect ɒ~ɔ
Manchester dialect
Pitmatic
Scouse ɒ
Yorkshire dialect ɒ~ɔ
Received Pronunciation (RP) Conservative[15][16] ɒ
Standard Southern British English (SSBE)[17] ɔ
Fiji English[citation needed] Green tickY
Hiberno-English[18] Ulster English Belfast ɒː Green tickY
Mid-Ulster
Traditional äː Red XN
Ulster Scots dialect ɔː
South-West Irish English aː~ä Green tickY
Dublin English Local
New ɔː Red XN
Standard Irish English ɒ
Indian English[19] ɔ~ɒ~ä Red XN
Newfoundland English[20] ɑː Green tickY Green tickY
New Zealand English[21][22] Cultivated ɒ~ɔ Red XN Red XN
General
Broad
Palauan English[citation needed] ɑ Green tickY
Scottish English[23] ɔ
Solomon Islands English[citation needed]
South African English[24][25] Cultivated ɒ̈, o̞ː Green tickY Red XN
General ɒ̈~ʌ̈, oː
Broad ɒ̈, oː
Singaporean Standard English[26] ɔ Red XN Green tickY
Welsh English[27] Abercraf English ɒ Red XN
Port Talbot English
Cardiff English[13] ɑ̟
  1. ^ The LOT-CLOTH split must not have taken place for the CLOTH-PALM merger to occur.
[edit]

STRUT

[edit]

Free vowels

[edit]

PALM

[edit]
Accent Realizations Mergers
Away from PALM Towards PALM
BATH LOT THOUGHT
father-bother merger through cot-caught merger[i]
American English African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)[citation needed] Non-Rhotic a~ä~ɑ Red XN Green tickY Red XN
Rhotic
Boston accent[citation needed] Older ä~a Green tickY Red XN
Younger Red XN
Cajun English[citation needed] ɑ Green tickY
California English[citation needed] Northern ä~ɑ~ɒ Green tickY
Southern
Chicano English[citation needed] ä~a
General American English[28][29][30] ɑ~ä Red XN
Good American Speech[citation needed] ɑ̟ː Red XN
Inland Northern American English[citation needed] a~ä Green tickY
Miami English[citation needed] ɑ
New York accent[citation needed] Non-Rhotic ɑ~ä
Older
Rhotic
Philadelphia English[citation needed] ɑ
Southern American English[citation needed] Older
Non-Rhotic
Rhotic
Australian English[31][32] Cultivated äː Green tickY Red XN
General äː~ɐː
Broad
Bahamian English[citation needed] ɑ Red XN Green tickY
Bajan English[citation needed] aː Green tickY Red XN
Canadian English[33] ɒ~ɑ Red XN Green tickY Green tickY
Cameroonian English[34]

a̽

Green tickY Red XN Red XN
Channel Islands English[citation needed] ɑː Red XN
English in England Brummie dialect[35]
English in Southern England Cockney[citation needed] Green tickY
Estuary English[citation needed] ɑː~ɑ̟ː~ɑ̹ː
Multicultural London English (MLE)[36] ɑː
West Country English[citation needed] ɒ~ɑ Red XN
English in Northern England[citation needed] Cumbrian dialect äː
Geordie ɒː~ɑː
Lancashire dialect äː
Manchester dialect
Pitmatic
Scouse aː~ɑː
Yorkshire dialect äː
Received Pronunciation (RP) Conservative[37][38] ɑ̟ː Green tickY
Standard Southern British English (SSBE)[39] ɑ̈ː~ʌ̞ː
Fiji English[citation needed] aː Red XN
Hiberno-English[40] Ulster English Belfast äː
Mid-Ulster
Traditional
Ulster Scots dialect
South-West Irish English æː~aː Green tickY
Dublin English Local
New aː
Standard Irish English
Indian English[41] äː
Newfoundland English[20] æ~ɑː Red XN
New Zealand English[42][43] Cultivated

ɐː~äː

Green tickY
General
Broad
Palauan English[citation needed] ɑː Red XN
Scottish English[44]

ä

Green tickY
Solomon Islands English[citation needed] ɑː Red XN
South African English[45][46] Cultivated ɑ̟ː Green tickY
General ɑː
Broad ɒː~ɔː
Singapore English[47] ä
Welsh English[48] Abercraf English aː Red XN
Port Talbot English
Cardiff English[35] aː~æː
  1. ^ The father-bother merger must have taken place for the cot-caught merger to occur. Therefore 'cot' refers to the result of that merger.

FACE

[edit]
Accent Realizations
Allophonic splits
date day
American English African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)[citation needed] Non-Rhotic eɪ̯~ɛɪ̯
Rhotic
Boston accent[citation needed] Older eɪ̯
Younger
Cajun English[citation needed] eː
California English[citation needed] Northern eɪ̯~ɛɪ̯
Southern
Chicano English[citation needed] eː
General American English[28][29][30] eɪ̯~e
Good American Speech[citation needed] eɪ̯
Inland Northern American English[citation needed]
Miami English[citation needed]
New York accent[citation needed] Non-Rhotic eɪ̯~ɛɪ̯
Older
Rhotic
Philadelphia English[citation needed] eɪ̯
Southern American English[citation needed] Older ɛɪ~ei
Non-Rhotic ɛi̯~æ̠i̯
Rhotic
Australian English[31][32] Cultivated ɛɪ̯
General æɪ̯~ɐɪ̯
Broad ɐɪ̯~äɪ̯
Bahamian English[citation needed] eɪ̯~ɛɪ̯
Bajan English[citation needed] eɪ̯~eː~ɛ
Canadian English[33] eɪ̯
Cameroonian English[34] eː~ɛː
Channel Islands English[citation needed] eɪ̯
English in England Brummie dialect[35] ɛi̯~aɪ̯~ɐɪ̯~ʌɪ̯
English in Southern England Cockney[citation needed] æɪ~aɪ
Estuary English[citation needed] ɛɪ̯~eɪ̯~ë̞ɪ̯
Multicultural London English (MLE)[36] eɪ̯
West Country English[citation needed] eː~eɪ̯
English in Northern England[citation needed] Cumbrian dialect ɛː~e̞ː e̞ɪ
Geordie eː~eɪ̯~ɪə̯
Lancashire dialect ɛː~e̞ː e̞ɪ
Manchester dialect ɛɪ~e̞ɪ
Pitmatic ɛː~e̞ː e̞ɪ
Scouse ɛɪ~e̞ɪ
Yorkshire dialect ɛː~e̞ː e̞ɪ
Received Pronunciation (RP) Conservative[37][38] e̞ɪ̯
Standard Southern British English (SSBE)[39] ɛɪ̯
Fiji English[citation needed] eː
Hiberno-English[40] Ulster English Belfast eː~ɪː, eə̯~ɪə̯
Mid-Ulster
Traditional
Ulster Scots dialect
South-West Irish English eː
Dublin English Local eː~eɪ̯~ɛɪ̯
New
Standard Irish English
Indian English[41] eː
Newfoundland English[20] ɛː~ɛɪ
New Zealand English[42][43] Cultivated ɛɪ̯
General æe̯~ɐe̯
Broad ɐe̯
Palauan English[citation needed] eɪ̯~eː
Scottish English[44] e
Solomon Islands English[citation needed] eɪ̯~eː
South African English[45][46] Cultivated eɪ̯
General eɪ̯~ɛɪ̯~æɪ̯
Broad æɪ̯~äɪ̯~ʌɪ̯
Singapore English[47] e
Welsh English[48] Abercraf English eː eɪ̯
Port Talbot English
Cardiff English[35] ei̯

FLEECE

[edit]
Accent Realizations Mergers
Towards FLEECE
happY
happY tensing
American English African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)[citation needed] Non-Rhotic i Red XN
Rhotic
Boston accent[citation needed] Older
Younger
Cajun English[citation needed] Green tickY
California English[citation needed] Northern ɪi̯~i
Southern
Chicano English[citation needed] i
General American English[28][29][30] ɪi̯~i
Good American Speech[citation needed] i Red XN
Inland Northern American English[citation needed] ɪi̯~i Green tickY
Miami English[citation needed]
New York accent[citation needed] Non-Rhotic
Older
Rhotic
Philadelphia English[citation needed] i
Southern American English[citation needed] Older iː Red XN
Non-Rhotic ɪi̯~i
Rhotic
Australian English[31][32] Cultivated ɪi̯~iː Green tickY
General
Broad ɪi̯~əi̯
Bahamian English[citation needed] ɪi̯~i Red XN
Bajan English[citation needed] iː Green tickY
Canadian English[33] ɪi̯ Red XN
Cameroonian English[34] ɪi̯~iː
Channel Islands English[citation needed] i
English in England Brummie dialect[35] əi̯~ɨi̯
English in Southern England Cockney[citation needed] əi~ɐi
Estuary English[citation needed] ɪi̯~iː Green tickY
Multicultural London English (MLE)[36] iː
West Country English[citation needed] ɪi Red XN
English in Northern England[citation needed] Cumbrian dialect iː, ei̯
Geordie ɪi
Lancashire dialect
Manchester dialect iː
Pitmatic ɪi~iː
Scouse iː, ɪ̈i̯~ɪ̈ɪ̯
Yorkshire dialect ɪi~iː
Received Pronunciation (RP) Conservative[37][38] ɪi̯
Standard Southern British English (SSBE)[39] ɪi̯~iː Green tickY
Fiji English[citation needed] i
Hiberno-English[40] Ulster English Belfast iː Red XN
Mid-Ulster
Traditional ɪi̯
Ulster Scots dialect iː
South-West Irish English Green tickY
Dublin English Local
New
Standard Irish English
Indian English[41]
Newfoundland English[20] Red XN
New Zealand English[42][43] Cultivated ɪi̯ Green tickY
General ɪi̯~əi̯
Broad
Palauan English[citation needed] i
Scottish English[44] Red XN
Solomon Islands English[citation needed] Green tickY
South African English[45][46] Cultivated iː Red XN
General Green tickY
Broad
Singapore English[47] i
Welsh English[48] Abercraf English iː
Port Talbot English
Cardiff English[35]

PRICE

[edit]

GOAT

[edit]

CHOICE

[edit]

GOOSE

[edit]

MOUTH

[edit]

THOUGHT

[edit]
Accent Realizations Mergers
Away from THOUGHT
Allophonic splits LOT CLOTH PALM
paws pause cot-caught merger[i] (through father-bother merger)
American English African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)[citation needed] Non-Rhotic ɒ(ɔ̯)~ɔ(ʊ̯)~ɔə̯ Red XN Green tickY Red XN
Rhotic
Boston accent[citation needed] Older ɒ~ɑ Green tickY
Younger
Cajun English[citation needed] a Red XN
California English[citation needed] Northern ä~ɑ~ɒ Green tickY Green tickY
Southern
Chicano English[citation needed] ä~a
General American English[28][29][30] ɒ~ɔ, ɑ Red XN Red XN
Good American Speech[citation needed] ɔː Red XN
Inland Northern American English[citation needed] ɒ~ɑ Green tickY
Miami English[citation needed] ɑ~ɔ
New York accent[citation needed] Non-Rhotic ɔə̯~oə̯~ʊə̯
Older
Rhotic
Philadelphia English[citation needed] ɔə̯~ɒ̝ə̯
Southern American English[citation needed] Older ɔo̯~ɑɒ̯
Non-Rhotic ɑɒ̯~ɑ
Rhotic
Australian English[31][32] Cultivated o̞ː Red XN
General oː
Broad
Bahamian English[citation needed] ɔ Green tickY
Bajan English[citation needed] ɒː~ɑː Red XN
Canadian English[33] ɒ~ɑ Green tickY Green tickY Green tickY
Cameroonian English[34] ɔ Red XN
Channel Islands English[citation needed] oː~ɔː Red XN Red XN
English in England Brummie dialect[35] o̞ː~ɔː
English in Southern England Cockney[citation needed] ɔː~ɔ̝ə̯~ɔuə̯ oː~oʊ~ɔo
Estuary English[citation needed] ɔə̯~ɔː~ɔ̝ː o̟ː~o̞ː
Multicultural London English (MLE)[36] oː
West Country English[citation needed] ɒː~ɔː
English in Northern England[citation needed] Cumbrian dialect
Geordie ɔː
Lancashire dialect ɒː~ɔː
Manchester dialect
Pitmatic
Scouse o̞ː
Yorkshire dialect ɒː~ɔː
Received Pronunciation (RP) Conservative[37][38] o̞ː
Standard Southern British English (SSBE)[39]
Fiji English[citation needed] ɔ Green tickY
Hiberno-English[40] Ulster English Belfast ɒː Red XN Green tickY
Mid-Ulster
Traditional äː Green tickY
Ulster Scots dialect ɔː
South-West Irish English aː~ä Red XN
Dublin English Local
New ɒː~ɔː~oː Red XN
Standard Irish English ɑː
Indian English[41] ɔː~ɒː
Newfoundland English[20] ɑː Green tickY
New Zealand English[42][43] Cultivated oː Red XN
General
Broad
Palauan English[citation needed] ɑ Green tickY Green tickY
Scottish English[44] ɔ
Solomon Islands English[citation needed]
South African English[45][46] Cultivated o̞ː Red XN Red XN
General oː
Broad
Singapore English[47] ɔ Green tickY Green tickY
Welsh English[48] Abercraf English ɒː Red XN Red XN
Port Talbot English
Cardiff English[35] ʌ̈ː
  1. ^ The cot-caught merger necessitates that CLOTH and THOUGHT are also merged

Vowels + historical /r/

[edit]

START

[edit]

SQUARE

[edit]

NEAR

[edit]

NORTH

[edit]

FORCE

[edit]

NURSE

[edit]

CURE

[edit]

Reduced vowels

[edit]

commA

[edit]
Accent Realizations Mergers
Towards commA
KIT
American English African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)[citation needed] Non-Rhotic ə Red XN
Rhotic
Boston accent[citation needed] Older
Younger
Cajun English[citation needed]
California English[citation needed] Northern
Southern
Chicano English[citation needed]
General American English[28][29][30]
Good American Speech[citation needed]
Inland Northern American English[citation needed]
Miami English[citation needed]
New York accent[citation needed] Non-Rhotic
Older
Rhotic
Philadelphia English[citation needed]
Southern American English[citation needed] Older
Non-Rhotic
Rhotic
Australian English[31][32] Cultivated
General
Broad
Bahamian English[citation needed]
Bajan English[citation needed]
Canadian English[33]
Cameroonian English[34] ə~a̽~ɔ~ɪ~ɛ
Channel Islands English[citation needed] ə
English in England Brummie dialect[35] ə~ɐ
English in Southern England Cockney[citation needed]
Estuary English[citation needed] ə~ə̝
Multicultural London English (MLE)[36] ə~ɐ
West Country English[citation needed] ə~ɔː
English in Northern England[citation needed] Cumbrian dialect ə
Geordie ə~ɐ
Lancashire dialect ə
Manchester dialect
Pitmatic
Scouse
Yorkshire dialect
Received Pronunciation (RP) Conservative[37][38]
Standard Southern British English (SSBE)[39]
Fiji English[citation needed] ɐ~a
Hiberno-English[40] Ulster English Belfast ə
Mid-Ulster
Traditional
Ulster Scots dialect
South-West Irish English
Dublin English Local
New
Standard Irish English
Indian English[41]
Newfoundland English[20]
New Zealand English[42][43] Cultivated
General Green tickY
Broad
Palauan English[citation needed] Red XN
Scottish English[44]
Solomon Islands English[citation needed] ə~ɐ
South African English[45][46] Cultivated ə
General
Broad Green tickY[i]
Singapore English[47] Red XN
Welsh English[48] Abercraf English
Port Talbot English
Cardiff English[35]
  1. ^ It is not clear whether this a true phonemic split, since the distribution of the two sounds is predictable; see Kit–bit split.

lettER

[edit]

happY

[edit]
Accent Realizations Mergers
Away from happY
KIT FLEECE
happY tensing
American English African-American Vernacular English (AAVE)[citation needed] Non-Rhotic ɪ~i Red XN Red XN
Rhotic
Boston accent[citation needed] Older i
Younger
Cajun English[citation needed] ɪ~i Green tickY
California English[citation needed] Northern ɪi̯~i
Southern
Chicano English[citation needed] i
General American English[28][29][30] ɪi̯~i
Good American Speech[citation needed] ɪ~ɪ̈ Red XN
Inland Northern American English[citation needed] ɪi̯~i Green tickY
Miami English[citation needed]
New York accent[citation needed] Non-Rhotic
Older
Rhotic
Philadelphia English[citation needed] i
Southern American English[citation needed] Older ɪ Red XN
Non-Rhotic
Rhotic
Australian English[31][32] Cultivated ɪi̯~iː Green tickY
General
Broad
Bahamian English[citation needed] ɪ Green tickY Red XN
Bajan English[citation needed] iː Red XN Green tickY
Canadian English[33] i Red XN
Cameroonian English[34]
Channel Islands English[citation needed] iː~i
English in England Brummie dialect[35] əi̯~i
English in Southern England Cockney[citation needed] i
Estuary English[citation needed] ɪi̯~iː Green tickY
Multicultural London English (MLE)[36] iː
West Country English[citation needed] ei~ɪi Red XN
English in Northern England[citation needed] Cumbrian dialect i
Geordie
Lancashire dialect ɪ~e
Manchester dialect
Pitmatic i
Scouse
Yorkshire dialect ɪ~e
Received Pronunciation (RP) Conservative[37][38] ɪ Green tickY
Standard Southern British English (SSBE)[39] ɪi̯~iː Red XN Green tickY
Fiji English[citation needed] i
Hiberno-English[40] Ulster English Belfast e Red XN
Mid-Ulster
Traditional
Ulster Scots dialect
South-West Irish English iː Green tickY
Dublin English Local
New
Standard Irish English
Indian English[41]
Newfoundland English[20] i Red XN
New Zealand English[42][43] Cultivated ɪi̯ Green tickY
General ɪi̯~əi̯
Broad
Palauan English[citation needed] i
Scottish English[44] e~ɪ~i Red XN
Solomon Islands English[citation needed] i Green tickY
South African English[45][46] Cultivated ɪ Green tickY Red XN
General iː Red XN Green tickY
Broad
Singapore English[47] i
Welsh English[48] Abercraf English iː
Port Talbot English
Cardiff English[35]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Dictionary Unit for South African English (2023). "‖hlala kahle". Dictionary of South African English. Retrieved 2024-04-20.
  2. ^ Dictionary Unit for South African English (2023). "ibandla". Dictionary of South African English. Retrieved 2024-04-20.
  3. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 100–101, 134, 232–233.
  4. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 288–289, 596.
  5. ^ Boberg, Charles (Spring 2001). "Phonological Status of Western New England". American Speech, Volume 76, Number 1. pp. 3-29 (Article). Duke University Press. p. 11: "The vowel /æ/ is generally tensed and raised [...] only before nasals, a raising environment for most speakers of North American English".
  6. ^ a b c d Kenyon & Knott (1953)
  7. ^ a b c d Kenyon (1950)
  8. ^ a b c d Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009)
  9. ^ a b c d Harrington, Cox & Evans (1997)
  10. ^ a b c d Cox & Palethorpe (2007)
  11. ^ a b c d Boberg (2004)
  12. ^ a b c d Todd, Loreto (1982). Cameroon. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 9789027286703.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h Wells (1982:387)
  14. ^ a b c d Fox, Susan (2015). The New Cockney: New Ethnicities and Adolescent Speech in the Traditional East End of London.
  15. ^ a b c d Roach (2004:241–243)
  16. ^ a b c d "Case Studies – Received Pronunciation Phonology – RP Vowel Sounds". British Library. Archived from the original on 2018-12-25. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
  17. ^ a b c d "The British English vowel system". 8 March 2012.
  18. ^ a b c d Wells (1982:422)
  19. ^ a b c d Sailaja (2009:19–26)
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Wells (1982), p. 499.
  21. ^ a b c d Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009)
  22. ^ a b c d Bauer et al. (2007:97–102)
  23. ^ a b c d Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006:7)
  24. ^ a b c d Bekker (2008)
  25. ^ a b c d Lass (2002:111–119)
  26. ^ a b c d Suzanna Bet Hashim and Brown, Adam (2000) 'The [e] and [æ] vowels in Singapore English'. In Adam Brown, David Deterding and Low Ee Ling (eds.) The English Language in Singapore: Research on Pronunciation, Singapore: Singapore Association for Applied Linguistics ISBN 981-04-2598-8, pp. 84–92.
  27. ^ a b c d Coupland & Thomas (1990:93–136)
  28. ^ a b c d e f g Kenyon & Knott (1953)
  29. ^ a b c d e f g Kenyon (1950)
  30. ^ a b c d e f g Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009)
  31. ^ a b c d e f g Harrington, Cox & Evans (1997)
  32. ^ a b c d e f g Cox & Palethorpe (2007)
  33. ^ a b c d e f g Boberg (2004)
  34. ^ a b c d e f g Todd, Loreto (1982). Cameroon. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 9789027286703.
  35. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Wells (1982:387)
  36. ^ a b c d e f g Fox, Susan (2015). The New Cockney: New Ethnicities and Adolescent Speech in the Traditional East End of London.
  37. ^ a b c d e f g Roach (2004:241–243)
  38. ^ a b c d e f g "Case Studies – Received Pronunciation Phonology – RP Vowel Sounds". British Library. Archived from the original on 2018-12-25. Retrieved 2013-05-26.
  39. ^ a b c d e f g "The British English vowel system". 8 March 2012.
  40. ^ a b c d e f g Wells (1982:422)
  41. ^ a b c d e f g Sailaja (2009:19–26)
  42. ^ a b c d e f g Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009)
  43. ^ a b c d e f g Bauer et al. (2007:97–102)
  44. ^ a b c d e f g Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006:7)
  45. ^ a b c d e f g Bekker (2008)
  46. ^ a b c d e f g Lass (2002:111–119)
  47. ^ a b c d e f g Suzanna Bet Hashim and Brown, Adam (2000) 'The [e] and [æ] vowels in Singapore English'. In Adam Brown, David Deterding and Low Ee Ling (eds.) The English Language in Singapore: Research on Pronunciation, Singapore: Singapore Association for Applied Linguistics ISBN 981-04-2598-8, pp. 84–92.
  48. ^ a b c d e f g Coupland & Thomas (1990:93–136)

[[Category:International Phonetic Alphabet|Chart for English dialects]] [[Category:English phonology]] [[Category:Comparison of forms of English]]