Islam in Myanmar

Burmese Muslims
မြန်မာနိုင်ငံရှိ အစ္စလာမ်ဘာသာဝင်များ

Kaladan Mosque in Mawlamyine, Mon State
Total population
2,353,848[1] (4.3%) (2015)
Languages
Burmese • Arabic
Related ethnic groups
Panthay, Burmese Indians, Rohingya, Kamein

Islam by country
World percentage of Muslims by country
Africa Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Eswatini Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Mayotte Morocco Western Sahara Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Réunion Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan Sudan Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe
Asia Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Cambodia China Cyprus Georgia Hong Kong India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Korea North Korea South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Macau Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Oman Pakistan Palestine Philippines Qatar Saudi Arabia Singapore Sri Lanka Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Thailand Timor-Leste Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen
Americas Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador French Guiana Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela
Europe Albania Andorra Austria Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Czechia Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kosovo Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia Tatarstan San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales
Oceania Australia Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Cook Islands Fiji Guam Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia Nauru New Caledonia New Zealand Northern Mariana Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu
Islam portal
v t e

Islam is a minority religion in Myanmar, practised by about 4.3% of the population, according to the 2014 Myanmar official statistics.^[2]

The first Muslims in Myanmar date to early Arab Muslim merchants in the Bagan period.^[3] Early settlements and propagation of Islam is documented to the 9th century. The First Mongol invasion of Burma in the 13th century and the relationship of the Mrauk U Kingdom with the Bengal Sultanate are examples of prominent Muslim presence in Myanmar with Muslims ranging from traders and settlers to positions of status as royal advisors and port authorities.^[4][5] The Pathi and Panthay ethnic groups also form a historically significant group of precolonial Chinese Muslims in Myanmar. In addition, British rule in Burma brought several Muslim diasaporic immigrants, including Indian Muslims who became a significant population in Rangoon.

The core of the Burmese Muslim community today are the descendants of Muslim peoples who settled and intermarried with local Burmese ethnic groups.^[6][7] Muslims arrived in Burma as traders or settlers,^[8] military personnel,^[9] and prisoners of war,^[9] refugees,^[10] and as slaves.^[11] However, many early Muslims also as saying goes held positions of status as royal advisers, royal administrators, port authorities, mayors, and traditional medicine men.^[12] Burmese kings resettled Muslims as prisoners of war throughout history as they did with other ethnic groups.^[13][14] Muslim artillerymen, riflemen and royal bodyguards served regularly in Burmese army during the Konbaung dynasty.

In the early Bagan era (AD 652-660), Arab chronicles document merchants landing at ports such as Thaton and Martaban while sailing from Madagascar to China.^[15] Arab travellers visited the Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal south of Burma.^[16]

The first Muslims landed in Myanmar's Irrawaddy delta and on the Tanintharyi coast. By the 9th century, they were also present in Arakan, prior to the establishment of the first Burmese empire in 1055 AD by King Anawrahta of Bagan.^[10][3] The sea ports of Burma are rife with the legendary accounts of early shipwrecks in their vicinity, which are supported by archaeological remnants. However, long-term settlement by Muslim traders appear to date to later centuries following the First Mongol invasion of Burma.^[17]

In Burma's semi-historical traditional historical chronicle, the Hmannan Yazawin, two Kalar Muslim sailor brothers, Byat Wi and Byat Ta, arrived near Thaton in the 11th century. Kalar today is an ethnic slur for Indians and Arabs, but originally meant "dark-skinned" and is assumed to have meant that they were from India.^[18] According to the chronicle, they gained superhuman strength after eating the magic meat of a mystic. The king of Thaton became afraid of them and killed the elder brother. The younger brother, Byatta, escaped to Bagan and took refuge with king Anawratha. He met and married Me Wunna from Mount Popa and had two sons- the Shwe Hpyin brothers.^[19]

The Shwe Hpyin brothers served the Bagan king as warriors. They became famous for infiltrating the Chinese King of Gandalaraj Utibua's bodyguards to draw three lines with white lime on the king's body and write a threatening message on the wall, scaring the Chinese into peace.^[20] However, the brothers were eventually executed because they refused to contribute in the building of a pagoda in Taungbyon,^[21] There was dissatisfaction with the decision and, according to legend, the two brothers' spirit manifested and demanded possession of Taungbyon. They were then deified as two of the 37 Great Nats, the Burmese pantheon.^[21]

The brothers are the subject of Myanmar's largest Nat festival- the Taungbyone Festival, celebrated annually for six days. Worshippers avoid consumption of pork out of respect for their religion as Muslims.^[22]

When King Anawrahta attacked Martaban, the capital of the Thaton Kingdom in the 12th century, their king Manuha was recorded to have two Muslim officers who commanded the defence fiercely.^[23][24]

Early Muslim settlements the propagation of Islam between the 9th and 14th century were documented by Arab, Persian, European and Chinese travellers. the majority of these were trade colonies in Lower Burma, with Muslim traders primarily referring to Pegu as "Burma". Later, during the Bagan king Kyansittha would take Indians captive during his invasions of Lower Burma, starting some of the first Muslims settlements in Upper Burma.^[10]

At first Muslims arrived on the Arakan coast and moved into the upward hinterland to Maungdaw. The time when the Muslims arrived in Burma and in Arakan and Maungdaw is uncertain.^{[citation needed]}

The Kingdom of Ava attacked Arakan in 1404, ousting the Arakin king Narameikhla to Bengal in the court of the Sultan of Gayr.^[25] He was reinstated as King of Arakan with the military assistance of the Sultan.^[26] Narameikhla founded the new capital, Mrauk U and the Mrauk U Kingdom. The Muslim army who helped him retake the kingdom settled in Arakan and built the Sandi Khan mosque in the village of Kawalaung.^[27] According to the Arakanese Rakhine Razawin Thit chronicle, Narameikhla had to surrender the twelve towns of Bhanga (Bengal) to the Sultan of Bengal and agree to be feudatory to Bengal in order to gain support. Arakan thus remained to be a subject state of Bengal for a century (1430-1530); Bengal Sultans conferred Muslim titles to nine kings of Arakan during this period.^[28]

Coins bearing the kalimah Islamic confession of faith and the name of the four khalifs of Islam in Arabic were discovered from this period of Arakan. Even after Mrauk U's independence from Bengal, many of its kings continued to style themselves as sultans.^[29] The son of Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, prince Shah Shuja, fled to Arakan in 1660 being granted asylum from his brother Aurangzeb after a failed rebellion.^[30] His soldiers' descendants became the Muslim Kamein people, forming the Royal Archers of the Guard. After the death of Arakanese king Sanda Thudhamma in 1684, the Kamein became very powerful power brokers in the Arakan court, dominating it from 1684 to 1710.^[31]

When Tabinshwehti, the first Taungoo king (1530-50 AD) attacked Hanthawaddy, Muslim soldiers were recorded as helping the Mons with artillery.^[32][33] When Tabinshwehti attacked Martaban in 1541 AD, many Muslims resisted strongly. When Bayinnaung successfully conquered Ayutthaya a decade later, he used Muslim artillerymen.^[23]

In the chronicles of Malaysia, during the first Malacca Empire of Parameswara in the early 15th century, it was recorded that when Burmese traders and sailors traded in Malacca. Muslims workers regularly travelled to Burma.^[34]

From the fifteenth to seventeenth Centuries, Muslim traders faced strict regulations by Burmese kings and, mostly, by local governors. However the ports thrived as a important point for sea communication, supplies and repairs for Muslim trading fleets. Muslim traders would marry and settle with local women. Despite strict trade regulations, Burmese governors occasionally encouraged this intermarriage while barring Muslims from taking their local wives or children back when they left to boost population numbers.^[35] Muslim sailors built worship sites called Buddermokan which were mosques, but equally holy to four religions in Burmese trade ports^[36][37] They were shrines to the "God of the Flood" in memory of Badral-Din Awliya, who was worshipped as a nat by the Buddhists, a minor god by Hindus and Chinese and a saint by the Muslims. Buddermokans were They are found in Akyab, Sandoway and on a small island off Mergui.^[38]

In the 17th century, Muslims tried to control business and to become powerful. They were appointed, variously, governors of Mergui, viceroys of the provinces in Tenasserim and as port authorities.^[39][40][41] In 1617 A.D. even after the English East India Company had established its factory at Masulipatnam, the Muslim merchants engaged themselves in trade between the Coromandel Coast and Pegu in Lower Burma.^[42] When the Burmese King Anaukpetlun reconquered Syriam in 1613 and Bago in 1617, the Muslim Moores in Masulipatan rejoiced greatly hoping to get the trade of Pegu into their hands again and prepared to send there two ships in the following September.^[43] Anaukpetlun also enslaved Indian mercenaries and battle ships from Syriam, resettling them in Shwebo.,^[44] Successive kings, up to the reign of Thalun continued to resettle Muslim prisoners of war, particular in Myedu a village near Shwebo, as well as in Sagaing, Yamethin and Kyaukse.^{[citation needed]}

In 1707, the Taungoo king Sanay Min brought Muslim prisoners of war from Sandoway and settled them in Myedu. Three thousand Muslims from the weakening Kingdom of Mrauk U took refuge under his rule from 1698–1714. These refugees were divided and settled in Taungoo, Yamethin, Nyaung Yan, Yin Daw, Meiktila, Pin Dale, Tabet Swe', Bhodhii, Syi Tha, Siputtara, Myae du and Depayin.^[45] Another record from 1783 mentions these three thousand Muslims were relieve of military service in 1709 and settled instead.^{[citation needed]}

Sanay Min also had two flotillas, named Elahee and Selamat, both Arabic Islamic names. These ships were recorded to have called at Forte St. George. The Elahee was used to send for missionaries exchanged between the Mughal Empire and the Burmese kingdom, being captained by an Arab.^[46][47] The diplomatic relations between the Court of Ava and Muslim Court of the Moghul began in 1706 A.D., with an exchange of gifts recorded by the English factory in Madras.^[48][49][50]

During Alaungpaya's conquests to create the Konbaung Dynasty, Muslims soldiers fought against him in Pyay and Muslim rich men were recorded to have surrendered expensive presents and warships to him in Yangon.^[51] He captured many Muslim artillery men during his conquest of Syriam^[52] and later let them serve in his army.^[53] After his capture of Bago, a parade was held in which Pathi Muslim soldiers were allowed to march in their traditional uniforms.^[54] His campaign against Assam and Manipur of India brought more Muslims to settle in Burma.^[10] These Muslims were resettled from his conquests to Myedu and were called Myedu Kala or Kala Pyo.^[55]

When King Bodawpaya founded Amarapura as his new capital in 1783, he issued a royal decree officially recognising his Muslim subjects. He appointed special minister Abid Shah Hussaini to give judgement regarding conflicts amongst Muslim subjects.^[56]

During the rule of King Bagyidaw (1819–37), his general Maha Bandula conquered Assam and brought back 40,000 prisoners of war, half of whom were likely Muslims.^[57] During the First Anglo-Burmese War, Maha Bandula captured 200 mixed Sepoy Indians, among other spoils, at the battles near Ramu. Muslims amongst them were relocated to the south of Amarapura.^[58] Among Maha Bandula's forces was Captain Nay Myo Gone Narrat Khan Sab Bo who led the 70 Cavalry Regiment.^[59] Khan Sab Bo's name was Abdul Karim Khan and was the father of the Captain Wali Khan, who also led a famous cavalry regiment during the reigns of successive kings. Khan Sab Bo was sent as an ambassador to French Indochina by Bagyidaw.^{[citation needed]}

he first mosque in Yangon was built in 1826 AD, at the end of first Anglo-Burmese Wars. It was destroyed by fighting in 1852 during the Second Anglo-Burmese War.^[23]

When King Tharrawaddy Min marched to Okkalapa, more than 100 Pathi Muslim Indian cannoneers took part.^[60]

Burmese kings of the Konbaung Dynasty employed a lot of Muslims in their inner circle: Royal bodyguards, eunuchs, couriers, interpreters and advisers.^[61] During the reign of Pagan Min, Muslims had significant roles in the administration. The governor of Amarapua was U Shwe Oh, a Burmese Muslim. A powerful clerk in Pagan Min's court, U Bein, was also responsible for the notable U Bein Bridge, a two-mile-long teakwood bridge.^[62] Sir Henry Yule saw many Muslims serving as eunuchs in the Burmese court while on a diplomatic mission there.^[63] He also noted that the previous governor of Bagan, who had been recently executed, had been a Muslim too.^[64] These Muslim eunuchs came from Arakan.^[65]

By 1855, Muslims in Amarapura numbered about 20,000 families, mostly Sunni Muslims.^[23] Abid Shah Hussaini burial place was well known as a shrine in Amarapura Lin Zin Gone Darga.^{[citation needed]}

Pagan Min was deposed by his brother Mindon Min following the Second Anglo-Burmese War. U Bo and U Yuet were two Kala Pyo Muslims who accompanied the princes when they fled to start the rebellion.^[66] Mindon showed favour to Muslims when he ascended the throne, giving several Muslims military and civil administrative ranks. In 1853, he ordered the preparation of halal food for his 700 Muslim horse cavalry soldiers during a donation ceremony. Upon the founding of Mandalay, several quarters with allocated spaces for mosques were granted to Muslims for settlement.^[67] U Bo later built and donated the June Mosque, which is still maintained in 27th street in modern Mandalay.^{[citation needed]} U Yuet became the Chief Royal Chef. Mindon also donated teak pillars from the old palace to the construction of a mosque in the Oh Bo district of Mandalay.^[67]

The Burmese Muslim quarters granted in Mandalay were:^[68]

• Sigaing dan
• Kone Yoe dan
• Taung Balu
• Oh Bo
• Setkyer Ngwezin
• June Amoke Tan
• Wali Khan Quarter
• Taik Tan Qr
• Koyandaw Qr (Royal Bodyguards' Qr)
• Ah Choke Tan
• Kala Pyo Qr
• Panthay dan for the Burmese Chinese Muslims.^[69]

Twenty mosques were allocated outside the Palace wall in those areas:^[68]

• Sigaing dan Mosque
• Kone Yoe Mosque
• Taung Balu Mosque
• June Mosque
• Koyandaw Mosque
• Wali Khan Mosque
• Kala Pyo Mosque
• Seven lots of lands for Setkyer Ngwezin
• Mandalay Panthay Mosque.^[69]

Inside the palace wall, Mindon Min constructed the Shwe Pannet mosque to accomodate his royal bodyguards.^[67] That mosque was demolished by in order to construct a polo playground.^[70]

Mindon Min additionally donated to building a rest house in Mecca for his Muslim subjects performing Hajj. Nay Myo Gonna Khalifa U Pho Mya and Haji U Swe Baw were ordered to supervise the building. The king completed the donations needed for the building, which had started with the donations from the Burmese Muslims. This was recorded in the Myedu Mosque imam U Shwe Taung's poems.^[71]

The last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II and his family members and some followers were exiled to Yangon, Myanmar. He died during his imprisonment in Yangon and was buried on 7 November 1862.^[62]

During Thibaw Min's Third Anglo-Burmese War, one of the three army groups of the Burmese Army was led by the Akhbat Horse Cavalry Chief, Maha Min Htin Yar Zar. He was previously called U Chone and was the chief clerk of the Kala Pyo Army. He helped save the chief queen back to safety during the Myin Kun Myin Khone Taing revolt and was rewarded with the mayorship of the town of Pinle.^[72] Htin Yar Zar commanded 1,629 soldiers.^[73] Additionally, Captain Bo Min Htin Kyaw also commanded 350 Kindar Kala Pyo artillerymen, with four additional Muslim-led cannoneer regiments.^[74]

Following the defeat of Thibaw Min by the British in 1885, Burmese Muslims formed many groups organisations for Burmese social welfare and religious affairs. On 28 November 1885, after the British took over the administration, the British included Kin Won Min Gyi, Tai Tar Min Gyi and Htin Yar Zar as representatives of the Parliament.^{[citation needed]}

The population of the Muslims increased during the British rule in Burma because of new waves of Indian Muslim immigration.^[75] This would sharply declined in the years following 1941 as a result of the Indo-Burman Immigration agreement.^[76] and was officially stopped following Burma's (Myanmar) independence on 4 January 1948.

Islam, mainly of the Sunni denomination, is practised by 4.3% of the population of Burma according to the government census latest 2014 year.^[2] However, according to the US State Department's 2006 international religious freedom report, the country's non-Buddhist populations were underestimated in the census. Muslim leaders estimate that 10% of the population may be Muslim.^[77]

• Kamein, a government-recognized ethnic minority native to Rakhine state and one of the seven groups of the Rakhine nation.
• Rohingyas, a minority Muslim ethnic group in northern Rakhine State, Myanmar. The Rohingya population is mostly concentrated in five northern townships of Rakhine State: Maungdaw, Buthidaung, Rathedaung, Akyab, Sandway, Tongo, Shokepro, Rashong Island and Kyauktaw.
• Panthay, Chinese Muslims in Burma migrated from Yunnan Province of China.
• Burmese Malays in Tanintharyi. Burmese people of Malay ancestry are locally called Pashu regardless of religion.
• Bamar Muslims (historically known as Zerbadi Muslims) are a community descended from inter-ethnic marriages between Indian Muslim males and Burmese females.^[78] They are the largest Muslim group in Myanmar and form more than half of the total Muslim population in the country.^[79] Culturally, Bamar Muslims are the same as the Bamar Buddhists including their lifestyle, clothing and language.^[80]

Myanmar Muslims were sometimes called Pathi, and Chinese Muslims are called Panthay.^[81] Native Burmese Muslim reverts were sometimes called Pathi,^[82] a name believed to be derived as a distortion of the Persian word "Parsi". Many settlements in the southern region of Myanmar were noted for their Muslim populations.^[83] There is some assumption amongst Pathi that the city of Pathein is named after its high Pathi population.^[84] Some also trace it a purported Muslim Indian king who ruled the city in the 13th century.^[85] However, etymologists typically trace the name to Old Mon "Kusimanagara" shorterned to "Kuthen" from the Kalyani Inscriptions.^[86][87] And coincidentally, Pathein is still famous for Pathein halawa, a traditional Myanmar snack inherited from northern Indian Muslim related to halwa.^[88][89]

Persian Muslims arrived in northern Burma on the border with the Chinese region of Yunnan as recorded in the Chronicles of China in 860 AD.^[10] Burma's contacts with Islam via Yunnan go back to Nasiruddin, the commander of the first Mongol invasion of Burma in 1277.^[90] In the 19th century, the broadminded King Mindon of Mandalay permitted the Chinese Muslims known as Panthays to build a mosque in Mandalay. The mosque received donations from Sultan Du Wenxiu of the Pingnan Sultanate in Yunnan and was supervised by one of his colonels. It signifies the beginning of the first Panthay Jama'at (Congregation) in the Mandalay Empire.^[91]

The stated official policy of the government of Burma is that all ethnic, religious, and language groups in Burma are equal. The Lordship of the Supreme Court of Rangoon remarked: "Today, in the various parts of Burma, there are people who, because of the origin and the isolated way of life, are totally unlike the Burmese in appearance of speak of events which had occurred outside the limits of their habitation. They are nevertheless statutory citizens under the Union (of Burma) Citizenship Act..... Thus mere race or appearance of a person or whether he has a knowledge of any language of the Union is not the test as to whether he is a citizen of the Union".^[92] Additionally, in 2005, the Ministry of Religious Affairs issued a declaration concerning freedom of religion:

All ethnic groups in Myanmar have been throughout the country since time immemorial. They have been living united in peace and harmony since the time of ancient Myanmar kings. Myanmar kings, in return, looked after the members of other Religious faiths by kindly giving them religious, social and economic opportunities equal to those awarded to Buddhists. It is well known that, to enable his Majesty's royal servants to fulfill their religious duties, Rakhine frame Mosque, Half-broken Mosque, Panthe Mosque, Mandalay Battery Ward Mosque and Christian Churches were allowed to be built and to perform respective religious duties during successive Myanmar kings. The Patron of the Fifth Buddhist Synod, King Mindone (1854 to 1878), during his rule built Peacock rest house in the Holy City of Mecca, for the Muslims from Myanmar who went there on Hajj pilgrimage to stay comfortably while they were there for about one and a half months. That act was one of the best testimonies in Myanmar history of how Myanmar kings looked after their Muslim subjects benevolently. Since the time of ancient Myanmar kings until the present day, successive Myanmar governments have given all four major religions an equal treatment. All the followers of each religion have been allowed to profess their respective religious faith and perform their respective duties freely. Myanmar's culture is based on loving kindness; the followers of Islam, Christianity and Hinduism in Myanmar are also kind-hearted people as Myanmar Buddhists are.^[67]

The first instance of persecution that can be shown to have resulted from religious reasons occurred during the reign of King Bayinnaung, 1550-1589 AD.^[9] After conquering Bago in 1559, he forced his non-Buddhist subjects to attend Buddhist sermon. Due to Theravada Buddhism being the official religion of Toungoo Empire, he pressured his non-Buddhist subjects to convert, which he also grew suspicious and discriminatory toward those who refused.

In Buddhism, the killing of animals is regarded as a cruel practice, as Buddha preached ahimsa or non-violence. Again due to Toungoo Empire official religion, Bayinnaung disallowed the Islamic feast Eid al-Adha, which is associated with cattle sacrifices. Bayinnaung went further and prohibited the practice of Dhabihah halal butchering as a whole.

After Konbaung Empire was founded, King Alaungpaya brought back Bayinnaung bans on Islamic Eid al-Adha and halal butchering again around mid-18th century.

King Bodawpaya (1782–1819) arrested four famous Myanmar Muslims Moulvis (Imams) from Myedu and killed them in Ava, the capital, after they refused to eat pork.^[93]

Under the British rule, their colonial economic stratification and discrimination intensified, with the native working class being left voiceless as the British easily replaced their manpower with cheaper and more obedient alternatives, from Bengals and elsewhere in India. The anger toward British colonialism led to the rise of anti-Indian and anti-Bengal sentiment, both groups being mostly Muslims further fueled anti-Muslim sentiment in the country. Following an anti-Indian riot in 1930,^[94] racial tensions flared between the natives and mostly-Muslim immigrants from Bengals & India. Native Burmese sentiment turned against those whom they regarded as foreigners, including Muslims of all ethnic groups.^[94] Following this, an anti-Muslim riot occurred in 1938, strongly influenced by newspapers.^[95][96]

These events led to the creation of the Burma for Burmese only Campaign, which staged a march to a Muslim Bazaar.^[97] While the Indian police broke the violent demonstration, three Buddhist monks were hurt. Pictures of Indian police attacking the Buddhist monks soon appeared on Burmese newspapers, which further intensified sectarian violence and riots.^[98] Muslims were also assaulted and killed with their mosques, houses, shops, were looted, destroyed, burnt to ashes. Sectarian violence spread throughout Burma, with a total of 113 mosques damaged.^[99]

On 22 September 1938, the British Governor set up the Inquiry Committee.^[100] This committee determined that the real cause of the discontent toward the government was deterioration of socio-political and economic conditions in Burma.^[100] This report was also used by Burmese newspapers to incite hatred against the British, Indians, and Muslims.^[100] The Simon Commission, which had been established to inquire into the effects of the Dyarchy system of ruling India and Burma in 1927, recommended that special places be assigned to the Burmese Muslims in the Legislative Council. It also recommended that full rights of citizenship should be guaranteed to all minorities: the right of free worship, the right to follow their own customs, the right to own property and to receive a share of the public revenues for the maintenance of their own educational and charitable institutions. It further recommended Home Rule or independent government separate from India or the status of dominion.

Panglong, a Chinese Muslim town in British Burma, was entirely destroyed by the Japanese invaders in the Japanese invasion of Burma.^[101] The Hui Muslim Ma Guanggui became the leader of the Hui Panglong self-defense guard created by Su who was sent by the Kuomintang government of the Republic of China to fight against the Japanese invasion of Panglong in 1942. The Japanese destroyed Panglong, burning it and driving out the over 200 Hui Muslim households out as refugees. Yunnan and Kokang received Hui Muslim refugees from Panglong driven out by the Japanese. One of Ma Guanggui's nephews was Ma Yeye, a son of Ma Guanghua and he narrated the history of Panglang included the Japanese attack.^[102] An account of the Japanese attack on the Hui Muslims in Panglong was written and published in 1998 by a Hui from Panglong called "Panglong Booklet".^[103] The Japanese attack in Burma caused the Mu family to seek refuge in Panglong due to the family being Hui, but they were driven out again to Yunnan when the Japanese attacked Panglong.^[104]

The BMC, Burma Muslim Congress was founded almost at the same time as the AFPFL, Anti-Fascist People's Freedom League of General Aung San and U Nu before World War Two.^[105] U Nu became the first Prime Minister of Burma in 1948, following Burmese independence. Shortly after, he requested that the Burma Muslim Congress resign its membership from AFPFL. In response, U Khin Maung Lat, the new President of BMC, decided to discontinue the religious practices of the BMC and rejoin the AFPFL. U Nu asked the BMC to dissolve in 1955, and removed it from AFPFL on 30 September 1956. Later U Nu decreed Buddhism as the state religion of Burma, angering religious minorities. He was then sued by U Than Tin and his comrades. Burma was never claimed as the land for Buddhism.

After the coup d'état of General Ne Win in 1962, the status of Muslims changed for the worse.

In that year, General Ne Win immediately reduced the Haj quota for Muslims to 102 persons only in the whole country. From next year, since 1963, he totally prohibited Muslims from performing Haj. After 17 years of total denial of Haj pilgrimage, only in 1980, open back that blockage and allowed 150 Muslims to perform Haj. Only in 1990 his successor military coup junta, SPDC or The State Peace and Development Council increase the quota to 200 persons, but with private Hajj travel companies, not limited for Hajj because all Hajj travelers were taking Hajj visa from Thailand. In 2005 after opening embassy of Saudi Arabia to Yangon, allowed 3000 persons for Hajj for the whole country; via private or government. In 2012, during the Thein Sein Gov, 5000 persons are allowed to perform Haj with the help of 50 Haj travel agents.

Muslims were expelled from the army and were rapidly marginalised.^[106] The generic racist slur of "Kalal" used against perceived "foreigners" gained especially negative connotations when referring to Burmese Muslims during this time.^[106] Accusations of "terrorism" were made against Muslim organisations such as the All Burma Muslim Union,^[106] (causing;) Muslims to join armed resistance groups to fight for greater freedoms.^[107]

On 16 March 1997 beginning at about 3:30 p.m., following reports of an attempted rape by Muslim men, a mob of about 1,000-1,500 Buddhist monks and others gathered in Mandalay. They targeted the mosques first for attack, followed by Muslim shop-houses and transportation vehicles in the vicinity of mosques. Looting, destruction of property, assault, sectarian violence and religious desecration all were reported.^[108] At least three people were killed and around 100 monks arrested.^[109]

Tension between Buddhists and Muslims was also high in Sittwe. The resentments are deeply rooted, and result from both communities feeling that they are under siege from the other. The violence in February 2001 flared up after an incident in which seven young Muslims refused to pay a Rakhine stall holder for cakes they had just eaten. The Rakhine seller, a woman, retaliated by beating one of the Muslims, according to a Muslim witness. He attested that several Muslims then came to protest and a brawl ensued. One monk nearby tried to solve that problem but was hit over the head by the angry Muslim men and started to bleed and died. Riots then broke out. A full-scale riot erupted after dusk and carried on for several hours. Buddhists poured gasoline on Muslim homes and properties and set them alight. Four homes and a Muslim guest house were burned down. Police and soldiers reportedly stood by and did nothing to stop the sectarian violence initially. There are no reliable estimates of the death toll or the number of injuries. No one died according to some Muslim activists but one monk was killed. The fighting took place in the predominantly Muslim part of town and so it was predominantly Muslim property that was damaged.^[110]

In 2001,Myo Pyauk Hmar Soe Kyauk Hla Tai , The Fear of Losing One's Race, and many other anti-Muslim pamphlets were widely distributed by monks. Distribution of the pamphlets was also facilitated by the Union Solidarity and Development Association (USDA),^[111] a civilian organisation instituted by the ruling junta, the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC). Many Muslims feel that this exacerbated the anti-Muslim feelings that had been provoked by the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan in the Bamyan Province of Afghanistan.^[110] Human Rights Watch reports that there was mounting tension between the Buddhist and Muslim communities in Taungoo for weeks before it erupted into violence in the middle of May 2001. Buddhist monks demanded that the Hantha Mosque in Taungoo be destroyed in "retaliation" for the destruction of the Buddhas of Bamiyan.^[112] Mobs of Buddhists, led by monks, vandalised Muslim-owned businesses and property and attacked and killed Muslims in Muslim communities.^[113] On 15 May 2001, anti-Muslim riots broke out in Taungoo, Bago division, resulting in the deaths of about 200 Muslims, in the destruction of 11 mosques, and setting ablaze of over 400 houses. On this day also, about 20 Muslims praying in the Han Tha mosque were beaten, some to death, by the pro-junta forces. On 17 May 2001, Lt. General Win Myint, Secretary No. 3 of the SPDC and deputy Home and Religious minister arrived and curfew was imposed there in Taungoo. All communication lines were disconnected.^[114] On 18 May, the Han Tha mosque and Taungoo Railway station mosque were razed by bulldozers owned by the SPDC.^[110] The mosques in Taungoo remained closed until May 2002, with Muslims forced to worship in their homes. After two days of violence the military stepped in and the violence immediately ended.^[110] There also were reports that local government authorities alerted Muslim elders in advance of the attacks and warned them not to retaliate to avoid escalating the violence. While the details of how the attacks began and who carried them out were unclear by year's end, the violence significantly heightened tensions between the Buddhist and Muslim communities.^[115]

In June 2012, violence erupted in western Burma's Arakan State between ethnic Rakhine (Arakan) and Rohingya. The violence broke out after reports circulated that on 28 May an Arakan woman was raped and killed in the town of Ramri allegedly by three Rohingya men.^[116] Details of the crime were circulated locally in an incendiary pamphlet, and on 3 June, a group of Arakan villagers in Toungup stopped a bus and killed 10 Muslims on board.^[117]

On 8 June, thousands of Rohingya rioted in Maungdaw town after Friday prayers by leading Islamic leaders, destroying property and killing Arakan (Rakhine) residents. Sectarian violence then quickly swept through the Arakan State capital, Sittwe, and surrounding areas.^{[118][119][120]}

On 9 June, mobs from both communities soon stormed unsuspecting villages and neighbourhoods, killing residents and destroying homes, shops, and houses of worship. With little to no government security present to stop the violence, people armed themselves with swords, spears, sticks, iron rods, knives, and other basic weapons, taking the law into their own hands.

In the first week of June, based on these two incidents, riots broke out in Rakhine States where rioters torched and destroyed houses, shops and guest houses and committed killings. 77 persons – 31 Rakhinis and 46 Rohingyas – lost lives in the incidents. The injured from both sides accounted for around 100. A total of 4,800 houses were burnt out by both sides in anger.

As of 24 July, the Rakkhine State Government estimated that there are over 61,000 people accommodated in 58 camps in Maundaw and Sittwe townships. 77 people died - 31 Rakhine nationals and 46 Rohingyans and 109 injured from both sides, and 4822 houses, 17 mosques, 15 monasteries and 3 schools were burned and destroyed.^{[121][122][123][124]}

In November, the International Network of Engaged Buddhists released a statement calling for the conflict to be resolved and stating that more than 75,000 people had been displaced and impoverished.^[125]

While the idea of monks actually leading rioters may seem unusual, certain details make it less so. Burma's large and much feared military intelligence service, the Directorate of Defense Security Intelligence, is commonly believed to have agents working within the monk-hood. Human Rights Watch also reported that monks in the 2001 riots were carrying mobile phones, a luxury not readily available to the Burmese population, as very few without government connections can afford them. It is also reported that there was a clear split between monks who provoked violence and those who did not. It has been suggested by Human Rights Watch and others that these facts may reflect the presence of agents provocateur among the monks.^[126]

Tensions between Muslim and Buddhist communities flared up to several violent riots across the country in 2013.

Buddhists and Muslims clashed for three days in Mandalay in early 29 May 2014, after a tea shop owned by a Muslim man accused of raping a Buddhist woman was attacked by a mob. Organized gangs of several hundred people armed with knives, rods and firearms were reportedly involved in the subsequent violence, which resulted in a curfew being imposed across the city. Two people, a Buddhist and a Muslim were killed in the attacks, and 14 were injured.^[127]

In late 2016, the Myanmar military forces and extremist Buddhists started a major crackdown on the Rohingya Muslims in the country's western region of Rakhine State. The crackdown was started in response to attacks on border police camps by unidentified insurgents,^[128] and has resulted in wide-scale human rights violations at the hands of security forces, including extrajudicial killings, gang rapes, arsons, and other brutalities.^{[129][130][131]} The military crackdown on Rohingya people drew criticism from various quarters including the United Nations, human rights group Amnesty International, the US Department of State, and the government of Malaysia.^{[132][133][134][135][136]} The de facto head of government Aung San Suu Kyi has particularly been criticized for her inaction and silence over the issue and for not doing much to prevent military abuses.^{[129][130][137]}

• 2012 Ramu violence
• 969 Movement
• Burmese Chinese
• Burmese Indians
• Burmese Malays
• List of Burmese Muslims
• List of Masjids in Mandalay
• Pakistanis in Burma
• Panthays (Burmese Chinese Muslims)
• Rohingya people
• Religion in Myanmar
• Rohingya insurgency in Western Myanmar
• 2016–17 Northern Rakhine State clashes

• The Burmanization of Myanmar's Muslims, the acculturation of the Muslims in Burma including Arakan, Jean A. Berlie, White Lotus Press editor, Bangkok, Thailand, published in 2008. ISBN 974-480-126-3, ISBN 978-974-480-126-5.
• "Democratic Voice of Burma". Burma News (in Burmese). 2004. Archived from the original on 11 May 2008. Retrieved 24 August 2008.
• Central Intelligence Agency (21 August 2008). "Burma". The World Factbook. Retrieved 22 August 2008.
• Charney, Michael W. (1999). 'Where Jambudipa and Islamdom Converged: Religious Change and the Emergence of Buddhist Communalism in Early Modern Arakan, 15th-19th Centuries.' PhD Dissertation, University of Michigan.
• Desai, Walter Sadgun (1961). A Pageant of Burmese History. Bombay: Orient Longmans. OCLC 7855419.
• Hall, D. G. E. (1981). A History of South-East Asia (4 ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-38641-9. OCLC 4494819.
• Harvey, G. E. (August 1922). "The fate of Shah Shuja, 1661". Journal of Burma Research Society. XII: 107–112.
• Enamul Huq, Muhammad; Visarad, Sahitya-sagar Abdul Karim Sahitya (30 August 2006). "Arakan Rajsabhay Bangala Sahitya (1600 - 1700 AD): Bengali Literature in the Kings' Court of Arakan". Translated by Mating, Sein Pru. Archived from the original on 5 June 2008. Retrieved 23 August 2008.
• Leider, Jacques P. (2004). 'Le Royaume d'Arakan, Birmanie. Son histoire politique entre le début du XVe et la fin du XVIIe siècle,' Paris, EFEO.
• Lintner, Bertil (17 April 1988). "March Student Riots, Unrest Reviewed". Bangkok Post.
• Maung, M. L. (1998). The Emergence of the Panthay Community at Mandalay. Rangoon: Unpublished.
• Naing, Naing Min (November 2001). "Bhomhu Ba Shin", "Wanna Kyawhtin Bhomhu Ba Shin". Al-Balag Journal (in Burmese). Ko Min Lwin.
• Soe, Tin (November 2001). "U Shwe Yoe's alias U Ba Ga Lay". Al-Balag Journal (in Burmese). Ko Min Lwin: 80, 82, 91.
• Temple, Sir Richard C. (1925). "Buddermokan". Journal of Burma Research Society. XV. Burmese Research Society: 1–33, pt. 1. ISSN 0304-2227. OCLC 1537852.
• Than, U Ba (1969). Kyāung thōn Myanma yazạwin (Myanmar History) (in Burmese). OCLC 23574199.
• Tun, Than (September 1938). "Race Riots in Burma". Workers' International News. 1 (9): 8–10. Retrieved 24 August 2008.
• Zwa, Kyaw (17 June 2007). "Sayar Maung Thaw Ka (poem)". Burma Digest (in Burmese). VII (6(C)). Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 24 August 2008.
• N. Kamal. Building confidence in Rohingyas' mind. The New Nation Newspaper, Dhaka, Bangladesh, 26 April 1992.

• Situation of Muslims in Burma
• US Department of State, International Religious Freedom Report 2005 on Burma