Wikipedia

Keraites

Not to be confused with Karaite.

Keraites
Хэрэйд (Khereid)
11th century–13th century
StatusSubjects to:
Liao dynasty,
Qara Khitai (Western Liao),
Genghisids
Religion
Church of the East
GovernmentKhanate
Khan 
• 11th century
Markus Buyruk Khan
• 12th century
Saryk Khan
• 12th century
Kurchakus Buyruk Khan
• –1203
Toghrul Khan (last)
Historical eraMiddle Ages
• Established
11th century
• absorbed into the Mongol Empire.
13th century
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Zubu
Kara-Khanid Khanate
Mongol Empire
Today part ofVarious Mongolic (Khalkha, Buryats, Kalmyks and Oirats)[1][2][3][4][5] and Turkic speaking (Kazakhs, Kyrgyzs, Nogais, Uzbeks and Bashkirs)[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15].

The Keraites (also Kerait, Kereit, Khereid, Kazakh: керейт; Kyrgyz: керей; Mongolian: ᠬᠡᠷᠢᠶᠡᠳ, Хэрэйд; Nogai: Кереит; Uzbek: Kerait; Chinese: 克烈, Persian: کرایت[16]) were one of the five dominant Turco-Mongol tribal confederations (khanates) in the Altai-Sayan region during the 12th century. They had converted to the Church of the East (Nestorianism) in the early 11th century and are one of the possible sources of the European Prester John legend.

Their original territory was expansive, corresponding to much of what is now Mongolia. Vasily Bartold (1913) located them along the upper Onon and Kherlen rivers and along the Tuul river.[17] They were defeated by Genghis Khan in 1203 and became influential in the rise of the Mongol Empire, and were gradually absorbed into the succeeding Mongol khanates during the 13th century.

Name

[edit]

In English, the name is primarily adopted as Keraites, alternatively Kerait, or Kereyit, in some earlier texts also as Karait or Karaites.[18][19]

One common theory sees the name as a cognate with the Mongolian хар (khar) and Turkic qarā for "black, swarthy". There have been various other Mongol and Turkic tribes with names involving the term, which are often conflated.[20]

According to the early 14th-century work Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani,[21][22]:

Chapter three

It is related that in ancient times there was monarch who had eight (seven) sons, all of whom were dark-skinned. For which reason they were called Kerait. After that, with the passage of time, the separate offspring of each of the sons took on name and epithet. The division among whom the monarchy is held until today is know simply as the Keraite. a special name and nickname. The other sons became the servants to the brother who was monarch, and there was no monarch found among them."

Other researchers also suggested that the Mongolian name Khereid may be an ancient totem name derived from the root Kheree (хэрээ) for "raven".[23]

History

[edit]

Origins

[edit]

The Keraites first entered history as the ruling faction of the Zubu, a large confederacy of tribes that dominated Mongolia during the 11th and 12th centuries and often fought with the Liao dynasty of north China, which controlled much of Mongolia at the time.

The names and titles of early Keraite leaders suggest that they were speakers of Turkic languages, and Togrul is a Turkic rather than a Mongol name. Toghrul's father and grandfather bore the Turkic title buiruk ('commander'); the title of the Keraite princess, Dokuz-khatun, is Turkic, as is the title 'Yellow Khan' under which one Keraite leader is know.[24][25][26][27] Building on this discussion of names and titles, Russian researcher Zolkhoev noted that Mongols not infrequently bore names of Turkic origin, but he stressed that such linguistic evidence alone is insufficient to establish a Turkic origin for the Keraites.[28]

Zolkhoev claims the majority of scholars and researchers classify the Keraites as a Turkic people[29]. A number of Western European and Asian scholars classified them as a Turkic people.[30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58] Scholars like Erica C. D. Hunter[59], Paul Ratchnevsky[60], Christoph Baumer[61], Zhou Qingshu[62], René Grousset[63], Ian Gilman[64], Yekemingghadai Irinchin[65], Hans-Joachim Klimkeit[66], John Man[67][68], John Saunders[69], Tu Ji[70], Maria Czaplicka[71], Klaus Schwarz[72], Steven Runciman[73], Tjalling Halbertsma[74], Manfred Taube[75], Paul Pelliot[76], Wilhelm Baum[77], Svat Soucek[78], Pavel Poucha[79], Marie Favereau[80], Yevgeny Kychanov[52], Kadyrbaev[81], Mukanov[82], Tynyshpaev[83], Viktorova[84], Jean-Paul Roux[85], Serdobov[86], Nikolai Aristov[87], Muratkhan Kani[88], Rudolf Kaschewsky[89], Türükoğlu[90], Gabzhalilov, Talas Omarbekov[91], Sarsen Amanzholov[92] classified them as Turkic people. According to Christoph Baumer, the Keraite elite were of Turkic origin, but by the 12th century they had become bilingual or predominantly Mongol-speaking.[31]

Rashid al-Din Hamadani write in his Jami' al-tawarikh[93]:

Chapter three

"The Turkic tribes that have also had separate monarchs and leaders but do not have a close relationship to the tribes mentioned in the previous division or to the Mongols yet they are close to them in physiognomy and language".

Each of these nations has had monarch or leader, their yurts dwelling places were delineated, and each has branched off into various subdivisions. These nations are held in high esteem at this time by other Turks previously mentioned and by the Mongol Turks because Genghis khan's family, who are monarchs of Mongols, conquered and subdued them through God's might. In ancient times these nations were of more importance and mightier than any other groups of Turks, and they had powerful monarchs. The stories of each of these nations wil be mentioned separately.

They had powerful monarchs from within their own tribes, and at that time they possessed more might and power than other nations within those borders. Christian missionary activity reached them, and they converted to that religion. They are a sort of Mongol. Their dwelling place is along the Onon and Kerulen Rivers, the land of Mongolia, which region is near the frontier of Cathay. They had many disputes with many tribes, particularly with the Naiman".

The Kerait are mentioned under the chapter title "The Turkic tribes that have also had separate monarchs and leaders but do not have a close relationship to the tribes mentioned in the previous division or to the mongols yet are close to them in physiognomy and language".[94][95] Irinchin who favored Turkic origin for Keraite note, Rashid ad-Din in his classification distinguishes them from the Mongol-speaking tribes , grouping them together with tribes of predominantly Turkic origin , with the exception of only the Tanguts.[a] In contrast Semenov and Petrushevsky note, Rashid al-Din uses the term “Turks” broadly for the nomadic tribes of Central Asia of very diverse origins, including peoples speaking not only Turkic but also Mongolic, Tangut, and Tungusic languages. Thus, for him “Turks” is not an ethno-linguistic label so much as a socio-cultural one - “nomads.”[96] Petrushevsky further argues that it can be stated with a high degree of probability that a number of polities - Tatars, Kerait, Naiman, Jalayir, Suldus, Barlas, Merkit, and Oirat - were Mongolic-speaking rather than Turkic-speaking in the 13th century.[97]

Ushnitsky claims that most researchers, consider the Keraites to be of Mongolic origin[98]. Mongolian origin is supported by Vasily Bartold,[99] Lev Gumilev,[100] Ilya Pavlovich Petrushevsky,[97] Gennady Avlyaev,[101] Boris Zolkhoev,[28] Vadim Trepavlov,[102] Shoqan Walikhanov,[103] Sergei Klyashtorny, Tursun Sultanov,[104] Tao Zongyi,[105] Aleksei Rakushin,[106] Urgunge Onon,[107] Boris Vladimirtsov[108] and others. In the "Yuan chao mi shi" there is an indication of their kinship with the Mongols.[109] Vladimirtsov suggested that the Mongolian written language first arose among the Kerait and Naiman tribes before the era of Genghis Khan.[110] Russian researcher Avlyaev believes that the Kerait tribal confederation included, in addition to the Mongolic component represented by the Keraits themselves, Turkic-Uyghur and Samoyedic elements.[111] In the work of Tao Zongyi, a historian of the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties, the Keraites are listed among the '72 Mongol peoples.' According to Zolkhoev, this clear designation as a subgroup of the Mongols in the Yuan period, consistent with Rashid al-Din’s "Compendium of Chronicles" where they are described as a 'clan of the Mongols,' strongly suggests that the Kerait tribe belonged to the Mongolic-speaking substratum.[112]

At the same time, Ushnitsky himself described the Keraites as a mysterious tribe whose ethnic affiliation is unclear and is unlikely ever to be definitively established. According to him, most likely, they consisted of groups of different origin, united by the adoption of Nestorian Christianity as a state religion.[109] There are also such hypotheses regarding the Keraites: Yevgeny Kychanov considered them to be part of the Yenisei Kyrgyz[52][109], while Saishiyal believed that they had a Tungusic origin.[113][109]

They are first noted in Syriac Church records which mention them being absorbed into the Church of the East around 1000 by Metropolitan Abdisho of the Merv ecclesiastical province.

Khanate

[edit]

After the Zubu broke up, the Keraites retained their dominance on the steppe until they were absorbed into the Mongol Empire. At the height of its power, the Keraite Khanate was organized along the same lines as the Naimans and other powerful steppe tribes of the day. A section is dedicated to the Keraites by Rashid al-Din Hamadani (1247–1318), the official historian of the Ilkhanate, in his Jami' al-tawarikh.

The people were divided into a "central" faction and an "outer" faction. The central faction served as the khan's army and was composed of warriors from many different tribes with no loyalties to anyone but the Khan. This made the central faction more of a quasi-feudal state than a genuine tribe. The "outer" faction was composed of tribes that pledged obedience to the khan, but lived on their own tribal pastures and functioned semi-autonomously. The "capital" of the Keraite khanate was a place called Orta Balagasun, which was probably located in an old Uyghur or Khitan fortress.[citation needed]

Markus Buyruk Khan was a Keraite leader who also led the Zubu confederacy. In 1100, he was killed by the Liao. Kurchakus Buyruk Khan was a son and successor of Bayruk Markus, among whose wives was Toreqaimish Khatun, daughter of Korchi Buiruk Khan of the Naimans. Kurchakus' younger brother was Gur Khan. Kurchakus Buyruk Khan had many sons. Notable sons included Toghrul, Yula-Mangus, Tai-Timur, and Bukha-Timur.[citation needed] In union with the Khitan, they became vassals of the Kara-Khitai state. [citation needed]

Depiction of Wang Khan as "Prester John" in Le Livre des Merveilles, 15th century.

After Kurchakus Buyruk Khan died, Ilma's Tatar servant Eljidai became the de facto regent. This upset Toghrul who had his younger brothers killed and then claimed the throne as Toghrul khan (Mongolian: Тоорил хан, romanized: Tooril khan) who was the son of Kurchakus by Ilma Khatun, reigned from the 1160s to 1203.[citation needed] His palace was located at present-day Ulan Bator and he became blood-brother (anda) to Yesugei. Genghis Khan called him khan etseg ('khan father'). Yesugei, having disposed of all Tughrul's sons, was now the only one in line to inherit the title khan.

The Tatars rebelled against the Jin dynasty in 1195. The Jin commander sent an emissary to Timujin. A fight with the Tatars broke out and the Mongol alliance defeated them. In 1196, the Jin Dynasty awarded Toghrul the title of "Wang" (king). After this, Toghrul was recorded under the title "Wang Khan" (Chinese: 王汗; pinyin: Wáng Hàn). When Temüjin, later Genghis Khan, attacked Jamukha for the title of Khan, Toghrul, fearing Temüjin's growing power, plotted with Jamukha to have him assassinated.

In 1203, Temüjin defeated the Keraites, who were distracted by the collapse of their coalition. Toghrul was killed by Naiman soldiers who failed to recognize him.

Mongol Empire and dispersal

[edit]

Genghis Khan married the oldest niece of Toghrul, Ibaqa, and then two years later divorced her and had her remarried to the general Jürchedei. Genghis Khan' son Tolui married another niece, Sorghaghtani Bekhi, and his son Jochi married a third niece, Begtütmish. Tolui and Sorghaghtani Bekhi became the parents of Möngke Khan and Kublai Khan.[114] The remaining Keraites submitted to Timujin's rule, but out of distrust, Timujin dispersed them among the other Mongol tribes.[citation needed]

Rinchin protected Christians when Ghazan began to persecute them but he was executed by Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan when fighting against his custodian, Chupan of the Taichiud in 1319.

Keraites arrived in Europe with the Mongol invasion led by Batu Khan and Mongke Khan. Kaidu's troops in the 1270s were likely mostly composed of Keraites and Naimans.[115]

From the 1380s onward, Nestorian Christianity in Mongolia declined and vanished, on the one hand due to the Islamization under Timur and on the other due to the Ming conquest of Karakorum. The remnants of the Keraits by late 14th century lived along the Kara Irtysh.[116] These remnants were finally dispersed in the 1420s in the Mongol-Oirat wars fought by Uwais Khan.[117]

Clans

[edit]

According to the early 14th-century work Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani,[118][119]:

The Keraites consist of many tribes and groups, all of which followed ong khan, as follows: Keraite, The jirqin, The Tongqayit, Saqiyat, The Toba'ut, The Albat.

Nestorian Christianity

[edit]
Main article: Christianity among the Mongols
The Ilkhanate ruler Hulagu Khan with his Keraite Christian wife Doquz Khatun.

The Keraites were converted to the Church of the East, a sect of Christianity, early in the 11th century.[114][120][121] Other tribes evangelized entirely or to a great extent during the 10th and 11th centuries were the Naiman and the Ongud.

Hamadani stated that the Keraites were Christians. William of Rubruck, who encountered many Nestorians during his stay at Mongke Khan's court and at Karakorum in 1254–1255, notes that Nestorianism in Mongolia was tainted by shamanism and Manicheism and very confused in terms of liturgy, not following the usual norms of Christian churches elsewhere in the world. He attributes this to the lack of teachers of the faith, power struggles among the clergy and a willingness to make doctrinal concessions to win the favour of the Khans. Contact with the Catholic Church was lost after the Islamization under Timur (r. 1370–1405), who effectively destroyed the Church of the East. The Church in Karakorum was destroyed by the invading Ming dynasty army in 1380.

The legend of Prester John, otherwise set in India or Ethiopia, was also brought in connection with the Eastern Christian rulers of the Keraites. In some versions of the legend, Prester John was explicitly identified with Toghril,[114] but Mongolian sources say nothing about his religion.[122]

Conversion account

[edit]

An account of the conversion of this people is given in the 12th-century Book of the Tower (Kitab al-Majdal) by Mari ibn Suleiman, and also by 13th-century Syriac Orthodox historian Bar Hebraeus where he names them with the Syriac word ܟܹܪܝܼܬ "Keraith").[123][124]

According to these accounts, shortly before 1007, the Keraite Khan lost his way during a snowstorm while hunting in the high mountains of his land. When he had abandoned all hope, a saint, Sergius of Samarkand, appeared in a vision and said, "If you will believe in Christ, I will lead you lest you perish." The king promised to become Christian, and the saint told him to close his eyes and he found himself back home (Bar Hebraeus' version says the saint led him to the open valley where his home was). When he met Christian merchants, he remembered the vision and asked them about the Christian religion, prayer and the book of canon laws. They taught him the Lord's Prayer, Te Deum, and the Trisagion in Syriac. At their suggestion, he sent a message to Abdisho, the Metropolitan of Merv, for priests and deacons to baptize him and his tribe. Abdisho sent a letter to Yohannan V, Patriarch of the Church of the East in Baghdad. Abdisho informed Yohannan V that the Khan asked him about fasting and whether they could be exempted from the usual Christian way of fasting since their diet was mainly meat and milk.

Abdisho also related that the Khan had already "set up a pavilion to take the place of an altar, in which was a cross and a Gospel, and named it after Mar Sergius, and he tethered a mare there and he takes her milk and lays it on the Gospel and the cross, and recites over it the prayers which he has learned, and makes the sign of the cross over it, and he and his people after him take a draft from it." Yohannan replied to Abdisho telling him one priest and one deacon was to be sent with altar paraments to baptize the king and his people. Yohannan also approved the exemption of the Keraites from strict church law, stating that while they had to abstain from meat during the annual Lenten fast like other Christians, they could still drink milk during that period, although they should switch from "sour milk" (fermented mare's milk) to "sweet milk" (normal milk) to remember the suffering of Christ during the Lenten fast. Yohannan also told Abdisho to endeavor to find wheat and wine for them, so they can celebrate the Paschal Eucharist. As a result of the mission that followed, the king and 200,000 of his people were baptized (both Bar Hebraeus and Mari ibn Suleiman give the same number).[24][125]

Legacy

[edit]

After the final dispersal of the remaining Keraites settling along the Irtysh River by the Oirats in the early 15th century, they disappear as an identifiable group. There are various hypotheses as to which groups may partially have been derived from them during the 16th or 17th century. According to Tynyshbaev (1925), their further fate was closely linked to that of the Argyn.[126] The name of the Qarai Turks may be derived from the Keraites, but it may also be connected to the names of various other Central Asian groups involving qara "black".[127] Kipchak groups such as the Argyn Kazakhs and the Kyrgyz Kireis have been proposed as possibly in part derived from the remnants of the Keraites who sought refuge in Eastern Europe in the early 15th century.[128] Keraites are also part of 92 tribes of Uzbeks[129]. According to the "Altan Tobchi", the Keraites were apparently part of the ancient Oirat confederation[130]. Keraites were also part of Bashkirs and Nogais.[131][132]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Үндэсний Статистикийн Хороо. Хэрээд.
  2. ^ Үндэсний Статистикийн Хороо. Хэрэйд.
  3. ^ Нанзатов Б. З. Кударинские буряты в XIX веке: этнический состав и расселение // Вестник БНЦ СО РАН. — 2016. — № 4 (24). — С. 126—134.
  4. ^ Нанзатов Б. З., Содномпилова М. М. Селенгинские буряты в XIX в.: этнический состав и расселение (юго-западный ареал) // Вестник БНЦ СО РАН. — 2019. — № 1 (33). — С. 126—134.
  5. ^ Бембеев В. Ойраты. Ойрат-калмыки. Калмыки: история, культура, расселение, общественный строй до образования Калмыцкого ханства в Поволжье и Предкавказье. — Джангар, 2004. — С. 87. — 495 с.
  6. ^ clans of the Middle Zhuz on the "Genealogy of the Kazakhs.
  7. ^ Middle Zhuz Kerey.
  8. ^ Vostrov V.V., Mukanov M.S. , Tribal composition and settlement of the Kazakhs (late XIX - early XX centuries). Alma-ata, 1968, pp. 58-59.
  9. ^ Султанов Т. Кочевые племена Приаралья в XV—XVII вв.// Вопросы этнической и социальной истории. М., 1982.
  10. ^ Allworth Edward, The modern Uzbeks from the fourteenth century to the present: a cultural history, Hoover Press, 1990, p.74.
  11. ^ Firdaws al-iqbal. History of Khorezm by Shir Muhammad Mirab Munis and Muhammad Riza Mirab Aghahi. Translated from Chaghatay and annotated by Yuri Bregel. Brill, 1999,р.55.
  12. ^ Malikov A. "92 Uzbek Tribes" in Official Discourses and the Oral Traditions from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie=Golden Horde Review. 2020, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 515.
  13. ^ Трепавлов В. В. История Ногайской Орды. — М.: Восточная литература, 2002. стр. 499—504.
  14. ^ всеобщаго землеописания по новейшему разделению государств и земель.
  15. ^ Хамидуллин, Салават. История башкирских родов. Гирей. Том 2. Часть 1. / С. И. Хамидуллин, Ю. М. Юсупов, Р. Р. Асылгу- жин, Р. Р. Шайхеев, Р. М. Рыскулов, А. Я. Гуме- рова, Г. Ю. Галеева, Г. Д. Султанова. – Уфа: ГУП РБ Уфимский полиграфкомбинат, 2014. – 528 с.: илл.
  16. ^ Rashid al-Din Hamadani. Jami' al-tawarikh. کرایت
  17. ^ V.V. Bartold in the article on Genghis Khan in the 1st edition of the Encyclopedia of Islam (1913); see Dunlop (1944:277)
  18. ^ "History of the voyages and discoveries made in the north translated from the German of Johann Reinhold Forster and elucidated by several new and original maps" p.141-142
  19. ^ "A General History And Collection of Voyages And Travels, Arranged In Systematic Order: Forming A Complete History of The Origin And Progress of Navigation, Discovery, And Commerce By Sea And Land, From The Earliest ages to the present time." Robert Kerr (writer), section VIII.2.
  20. ^ "EAS 107, Владимирцов 324, ОСНЯ 1, 338, АПиПЯЯ 54-55, 73, 103-104, 274. Despite TMN 3, 427, Щербак 1997, 134." Tower of Babel Mongolian etymology database.
  21. ^ Jamiʻuʼt-tawarikh. Compendium of chronicles. A History of the Mongols. Part One / Translated and Annotated by W. M. Thackston. Harvard university. 1998. p. 61.
  22. ^ Rashid al-Din Hamadani. Jami' al-tawarikh (in Persian). نقل می کنند که در قدیم الایام پادشاهی بوده و هفت پسر داشته تمامت سیاه چرده بدان سبب ایشان را کرایت گفته اند. بعد از آن به مرور ایام هر يك از شعب و فرزندان آن پسران اسمی و لقبی مخصوص می افتد و يك شعبه را که پادشاهی در ایشان بوده تا این غایت مطلق کرایت می گویند و باقی پسران بنده آن برادر شدند که پادشاه بود و از ایشان پادشاه نبوده. والله أعلم.
  23. ^ Хойт С.К. Кереиты в этногенезе народов Евразии: историография проблемы. Элиста, 2008. 82 с.
  24. ^ a b R. Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes, New Brunswick, New Jersey, Rutgers University Press, 1970, p191.
  25. ^ Ratchnevsky, Paul (1975). Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy. "Tu Ji's arguments may be open to refutation, but he is probably Correct in attributing a Turkic origin to the Keraits. The names and titles of the Kerait rulers are Turkic. To'oril is the Mongolized form of the Turkic Toghrul. Toghrul's father and grandfather bore the Turkic title buiruk ('commander'); the title of the Kerait princess, Dokuz-khatun, is Turkic, as is the title 'Yellow Khan' under which one Kerait leader is known"
  26. ^ Unesco (1992). History of Civilizations of Central Asia, Volym 4. UNESCO. p. 74. ISBN 9789231036545.
  27. ^ Pelliot, Paul (1931). La Haute Asie. Paris. In French: heatcoup des titulatures kérait étaient turques, et Togroul est plutôt un nom turc qu'un nom mongol. In English: Many of the Kerait titles were Turkic, and Togroul is more of a Turkic name rather than a Mongolian one.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  28. ^ a b Zolkhoev, Boris (2014). "Этническая и языковая принадлежность племени кераит в IX-XII вв. В источниках по истории монголов и исследованиях зарубежных авторов". Вестник БГУ (in Russian) (8): 140–144.
  29. ^ Zolkhoev, Boris. "Этническая и языковая принадлежность племени кераит в IX-XII вв. В источниках по истории монголов и исследованиях зарубежных авторов". In Russian: Большинство исследователей склонны относить их к тюркоязычной группе. In English: Most researchers tend to classify them as a Turkic-speaking group.
  30. ^ Ratchnevsky, Paul (1975). Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy. "Tu Ji's arguments may be open to refutation, but he is probably Correct in attributing a Turkic origin to the Keraits. The names and titles of the Kerait rulers are Turkic. To'oril is the Mongolized form of the Turkic Toghrul. Toghrul's father and grandfather bore the Turkic title buiruk ('commander'); the title of the Kerait princess, Dokuz-khatun, is Turkic, as is the title 'Yellow Khan' under which one Kerait leader is known"
  31. ^ a b Baumer, Christoph (2016). The History of Central Asia. The Keraite elite were of Turkic origin
  32. ^ Grousset, René (1939). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia.
  33. ^ Seyfeydinovich, Asimov, Muhammad; Edmund, Bosworth, Clifford; UNESCO (2000-12-31). History of civilizations of Central Asia: The Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century. UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 978-92-3-103654-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ Man, John (2004). Genghis Khan: Life, Death, and Resurrection.
  35. ^ Man, John (2014). The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan, His Heirs and the Founding of Modern China.
  36. ^ Saunders, John Joseph (1971). The History of the Mongol Conquests.
  37. ^ Tu, Ji (1934). Mengwu'er shiji.
  38. ^ Czaplicka, Maria (1918). The Turks of Central Asia in History and at the Present Day: An Ethnological Inquiry Into the Pan-Turanian Problem, and Bibliographical Material Relating to the Early Turks and the Present Turks of Central Asia.
  39. ^ Schwarz, Klaus (200). Philologiae Et Historiae Turcicae Fundamenta: T. primus. History of the Turkic peoples in the pre-islamic period. The non-muslim Turks under mongol dominion in the period from 1200 to the 1350 are the fallowing : the Uighur, Keraite, Naiman, Öngüt, Qirqiz,..
  40. ^ Runciman, Steven (1987-12-03). A History of the Crusades. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-34772-3.
  41. ^ Halbertsma, Tjalling H. F. (2008-08-31). Early Christian Remains of Inner Mongolia: Discovery, Reconstruction and Appropriation. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-474-4323-0.
  42. ^ Gilman, Ian; Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (2013-01-11). Christians in Asia before 1500. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-10978-2.
  43. ^ HUNTER, E.C.D (1989–91). The Conversion of the Kerait to Christianity in a.d. 1007.Vol.22. ZAS.
  44. ^ Taube, Manfred (1989). Geheime Geschichte der Mongolen. Munich.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  45. ^ Pelliot, Paul (1931). La Haute Asie. Paris.
  46. ^ Irinchin, Yekemingghadai (1979). On the Origins of the Ethnic Groups of Northern China and the Mongols. Journal of Inner Mongolian University.
  47. ^ Zhou, Qingshu (1979). The Ethnic Origin of the Önggüd. Hohhot: China Association of Mongolian History.
  48. ^ Baum, Winkler, Wilhelm, Dietmar W (2003). The Church of the East: A Concise History. Routledge. Two hundred thousand Turkish Keraits were baptized, and the bishop requested that the catholicos send priests and deacons{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  49. ^ Soucek, Svatopluk (2000-02-17). A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-521-65704-4.
  50. ^ Poucha, Pavel. Die geheime Geschichte der Mongolen als Geschichtsquelle und Literaturdenkmal. Alles ist bei den Käräyit türkisch, sie waren also eher Türken als Mongolen.
  51. ^ Favereau, Marie (2021). The Horde: How the Mongols Changed the World. Harvard University Press.
  52. ^ a b c Kychanov, Yevgeny. Кочевые государства от гуннов до маньчжуров. — М.: Изд. фирма «Восточная литература» РАН, 1997. — З20 с.
  53. ^ Kadyrbaev. Тюрки и иранцы в Китае и Центральной Азии XIII—XIV вв. — Алма-Ата: Гылым, 1990
  54. ^ Mukanov. Этнический состав и расселение казахов Среднего Жуза. — Алма-Ата: Наука, 1974. — 200 с.
  55. ^ Tynyshpaev М. Материалы к истории киргиз-казахского народа. — Ташкент, 1925. — С. 12—14
  56. ^ Viktorova, Lidija Leonidovna (196O). Mongoly: Proischoždenie naroda i istoki kul'tury.
  57. ^ Roux, Jean-Paul (1984). Histoire des Turcs : deux mille ans du Pacifique à la Méditerranée.
  58. ^ Serdobov, Nikolai Alekseevich (1971). История формирования тувинской нации.
  59. ^ Hunter, E.C.D. (1989–91). The Conversion of the Kerait to Christianity in a.d. 1007.Vol.22. ZAS.
  60. ^ Ratchnevsky, Paul (1975). Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy. "Tu Ji's arguments may be open to refutation, but he is probably Correct in attributing a Turkic origin to the Keraits. The names and titles of the Kerait rulers are Turkic. To'oril is the Mongolized form of the Turkic Toghrul. Toghrul's father and grandfather bore the Turkic title buiruk ('commander'); the title of the Kerait princess, Dokuz-khatun, is Turkic, as is the title 'Yellow Khan' under which one Kerait leader is known"
  61. ^ Baumer, Christoph (2016). "The History of Central Asia. The Keraite elite were of Turkic origin
  62. ^ Zhou, Qingshu (1979). The Ethnic Origin of the Önggüd. Hohhot: China Association of Mongolian History
  63. ^ Grousset, René (1939). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia
  64. ^ Gilman, Ian; Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (2013-01-11). Christians in Asia before 1500. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-10978-2.
  65. ^ Irinchin, Yekemingghadai (1979). On the Origins of the Ethnic Groups of Northern China and the Mongols. Journal of Inner Mongolian University.
  66. ^ Seyfeydinovich, Asimov, Muhammad; Edmund, Bosworth, Clifford; UNESCO (2000-12-31). History of civilizations of Central Asia: The Age of Achievement: A.D. 750 to the End of the Fifteenth Century. UNESCO Publishing. ISBN 978-92-3-103654-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  67. ^ Man, John (2004). Genghis Khan: Life, Death, and Resurrection.
  68. ^ Man, John (2014). The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan, His Heirs and the Founding of Modern China.
  69. ^ Saunders, John Joseph (1971). The History of the Mongol Conquests.
  70. ^ Tu, Ji (1934). Mengwu'er shiji.
  71. ^ Czaplicka, Maria (1918). The Turks of Central Asia in History and at the Present Day: An Ethnological Inquiry Into the Pan-Turanian Problem, and Bibliographical Material Relating to the Early Turks and the Present Turks of Central Asia.
  72. ^ Schwarz, Klaus (200). Philologiae Et Historiae Turcicae Fundamenta: T. primus. History of the Turkic peoples in the pre-islamic period. The non-muslim Turks under mongol dominion in the period from 1200 to the 1350 are the fallowing : the Uighur, Keraite, Naiman, Öngüt, Qirqiz, ...
  73. ^ Runciman, Steven (1987-12-03). A History of the Crusades. CUP Archive. ISBN 978-0-521-34772-3.
  74. ^ Halbertsma, Tjalling H. F. (2008-08-31). Early Christian Remains of Inner Mongolia: Discovery, Reconstruction and Appropriation. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-474-4323-0.
  75. ^ Taube, Manfred (1989). Geheime Geschichte der Mongolen. Munich
  76. ^ Pelliot, Paul (1931). La Haute Asie. Paris. In French: vons ici nos «Turcs Kérait» convertis au christianisme dans les premières années du xı siècle, et qui, au xııı, dominaient dans le bassin de l'Orkhon.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  77. ^ Baum, Winkler, Wilhelm, Dietmar W (2003). The Church of the East: A Concise History. Routledge. Two hundred thousand Turkish Keraits were baptized, and the bishop requested that the catholicos send priests and deacons
  78. ^ Soucek, Svatopluk (2000-02-17). A History of Inner Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-521-65704-4.
  79. ^ Poucha, Pavel. Die geheime Geschichte der Mongolen als Geschichtsquelle und Literaturdenkmal. Alles ist bei den Käräyit türkisch, sie waren also eher Türken als Mongolen.
  80. ^ Favereau, Marie (2021). The Horde: How the Mongols Changed the World. Harvard University Press.
  81. ^ Kadyrbaev. Тюрки и иранцы в Китае и Центральной Азии XIII—XIV вв. — Алма-Ата: Гылым, 1990
  82. ^ Mukanov. Этнический состав и расселение казахов Среднего Жуза. — Алма-Ата: Наука, 1974. — 200 с.
  83. ^ Tynyshpaev М. Материалы к истории киргиз-казахского народа. — Ташкент, 1925. — С. 12—14
  84. ^ Viktorova, Lidija Leonidovna (196O). Mongoly: Proischoždenie naroda i istoki kul'tury.
  85. ^ Roux, Jean-Paul (1984). Histoire des Turcs : deux mille ans du Pacifique à la Méditerranée.
  86. ^ Serdobov, Nikolai Alekseevich (1971). История формирования тувинской нации.
  87. ^ Aristov, N.A (1896). Ethnic structure of Türkic tribes and nations and information on their numbers.
  88. ^ Kani, Murtkhan (1993). Қазақтың көне тарихы. Almaty.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  89. ^ Kaschewsky, Rudolf. Die Religion der Mongolen.
  90. ^ Türükoğlu GökAlp. Sınırlandırılmış Türk Tarihi (in Turkish).
  91. ^ Gabzhalilov (2011). Қазақстан тарихы этникалық зерттеулерде (in Kazakh). Almaty: Alash.
  92. ^ Amanzholov, Sarsen (1959). Вопросы диалектологии и истории казахского языка. Almaty.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  93. ^ Jamiʻuʼt-tawarikh. Compendium of chronicles. A History of the Mongols. Part One / Translated and Annotated by W. M. Thackston. Harvard university. 1998. p. 61.
  94. ^ Rashiddun Fazlullah; Thackston, W. M. (Wheeler McIntosh) (1998). Compendium of Chronicles: A History of the Mongols, part 1.
  95. ^ Rashid al-Din Hamadani. Jami' al-tawarikh (in Persian). در ذکر اقوامی از اتراک که ایشان نیز هر یک علی حده پادشاهی و مقدمی داشته اند
  96. ^ Рашид-ад-дин. Сборник летописей. Т.I, кн.1. М., Л., 1952 Москва. p. 29, 92-93. In Russian: "Тюрками Рашид-ад-дин называет кочевые племена Центральной Азии самого различного происхождения, говорившие не только на тюркских языках, но и на языках монгольском, тангутском и тунгусо-манчжурских. Таким образом, «тюрки» у нашего историка – не этнический и лингвистический, а социально-бытовой термин: «кочевники»."
  97. ^ a b Рашид-ад-дин. Сборник летописей. Т.I, кн.1. М., Л., 1952 Москва. p. 29, 92-93. In Russian: "Можно утверждать, с большой долей вероятности, относительно ряда племен – татар, кераитов, найманов, джалаиров, сулдузов, барласов, меркитов, ойратов, – что в XIII в. они были монголоязычны, а не тюркоязычны."
  98. ^ Ushnitsky, Vasily (2011). "Исторический диспут об этнической принадлежности найманов и кереитов". In Russian: Большинство исследователей, опираясь на достоверные монгольские, персидские и китайские источники, признают их монгольское происхождение. In English: Most researchers, relying on reliable Mongolian, Persian and Chinese sources, regard Keraite as Mongolian.
  99. ^ Bartold .Vasily Сочинения. Т. II, часть 1. Общие работы по истории Средней Азии. Работы по истории Кавказа и Восточной Европы. М., 1963 p. 505.
  100. ^ Gumilev, Lev (2002). Поиски вымышленного царства (PDF). М.: АСТ. p. 110.
  101. ^ Avlyaev, Gennady (2002). Происхождение калмыцкого народа (PDF). Элиста: Калм. кн. изд-во. p. 38.
  102. ^ Trepavlov, Vadim. "Государства и народы Восточной Европы, Сибири, Дальнего Востока, Северного Кавказа в 13–17 веках". Большая российская энциклопедия (in Russian).
  103. ^ Shoqan Walikhanov. Избранные произведения. М.: Наука, 1987. p. 252. In Russian: "... найманы, джалаиры и кереиты были народы монгольские, по свидетельству восточных историков, и имели еще до Чингиса своих ханов."
  104. ^ Кляшторный С. Г., Султанов Т. И. Государства и народы Евразийских степей. СПб.: Петербургское Востоковедение. 2009. p. 211. In Russian: "Более того, татары, основной йурт которых в ХII в. находился около оз. Буир-Нур в Восточной Монголии, считались врагами собственно монгольских племен (меркиты, кереиты, кияты и т. д.)."
  105. ^ Tao Zongyi (1959). 南村輟耕錄 Nancun chuogeng lu. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
  106. ^ Rakushin, Aleksei Монголы на Волге (обретение новой родины: от завоевания к ассимиляции. Саратов. 2016. / отв. ред. Л. Ф. Недашковский p. 21. In Russian: "Окончательное покорение Темучином этого племени, видимо, произошло только в 1205 г., после того как он разбил последнюю крупную коалицию враждебных монгольских племен, состоявшую из найманов, меркитов, кереитов, ойратов, дорбенов, татар, катаканов, салджиутов, и был «возведен на императорский престол и наречен Чингизхан»."
  107. ^ Urgunge Onon. The Secret History of the Mongols. The Life and Times of Chinggis Khan. London and New York. 2001. p. 10. "The people of the felt walled tents were the Tatars, the Onggirads, the Kereyids, the Naimans, the Tayichi’uds, and the Merkids. All these groups spoke a language akin to that of the Mongols, but they were only included in the category of Mongols after they had been conquered by, or pledged alliance to, the Mongol tribe."
  108. ^ Vladimirtsov, Boris (1989). Сравнительная грамматика монгольского письменного языка и халхаского наречия: Введение и фонетика (in Russian) (2nd ed.). Moscow: Nauka, Main Editorial Office of Oriental Literature. p. 20. ISBN 5-02-016615-4. In Russian: Самыми же близкими соседями уйгуров из монгольских племен были найманы и кереиты, культурно общавшиеся с уйгурами. In English: The closest neighbors of the Uighurs among the Mongolic tribes were the Naimans and the Keraites, who maintained cultural contacts with the Uighurs.
  109. ^ a b c d Ushnitsky, Vasily (2011). "Исторический диспут об этнической принадлежности найманов и кереитов". Проблемы востоковедения (in Russian) (2 (52)): 28–34.
  110. ^ Vladimirtsov, Boris (1989). Сравнительная грамматика монгольского письменного языка и халхаского наречия: Введение и фонетика (in Russian) (2nd ed.). Moscow: Nauka, Main Editorial Office of Oriental Literature. p. 20. ISBN 5-02-016615-4. In Russian: По-видимому, монгольской письменный язык возник именно у этих монгольских племен до эпохи Чингис-хана. In English: It appears that the Mongolian written language first arose among these Mongolic tribes before the era of Genghis Khan.
  111. ^ Avlyaev, Gennady (1984). "К вопросу о происхождении кереитов и их участии в этногенезе средневековых ойратов Джунгарии и калмыков Поволжья". Проблемы этногенеза калмыков (in Russian).
  112. ^ Zolkhoev, Boris (2014). "Этническая и языковая принадлежность племени кераит в IX-XII вв. В источниках по истории монголов и исследованиях зарубежных авторов". Вестник Бурятского государственного университета. Философия (8): 140–144. ISSN 1994-0866.
  113. ^ Saishiyal. Сказание о Чингисхане / пер. со старомонгольского Норпола Очиров. — Улан-Удэ: ОАО «Республиканская типография», 2006. p. 90.
  114. ^ a b c Li, Tang (2006). "Sorkaktani Beki: A prominent Nestorian woman at the Mongol Court". In Malek, Roman; Hofrichter, Peter (eds.). Jingjiao: the Church of the East in China and Central Asia. Steyler Verlagsbuchhandlung GmbH. ISBN 978-3-8050-0534-0. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  115. ^ Tynyshbaev (1925)
  116. ^ Tynyshbaev (1925)
  117. ^ Tynyshbaev (1925)
  118. ^ Jamiʻuʼt-tawarikh. Compendium of chronicles. A History of the Mongols. Part One / Translated and Annotated by W. M. Thackston. Harvard university. 1998. p. 62.
  119. ^ Rashid al-Din Hamadani. Jami' al-tawarikh (in Persian). کرایت، چورقین، تونگقایت، ساقیات، توباووت، البات
  120. ^ Hunter (1991).[page needed] Silverberg, Robert (1972). The Realm of Prester John. Doubleday. p. 12.
  121. ^ Kingsley Bolton; Christopher Hutton (2000). Triad Societies: Western Accounts of the History, Sociology and Linguistics of Chinese Secret Societies. Taylor & Francis. pp. xlix–. ISBN 978-0-415-24397-1.
  122. ^ Atwood, Christopher P. (2004). Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. Facts On File. ISBN 0816046719.
  123. ^ Bar Hebraeus, Chronicon ecclesiasticum (ed. and tr. J.B. Abbeloos and T.J. Lamy, vol. 3, coll. 279-81).
    See Hunter (1991).[page needed]
  124. ^ Bar Hebraeus Chron. Syr. (1286) 204/184
  125. ^ Moffett, A History of Christianity in Asia pp. 400-401.
  126. ^ "The further fate of our Kerei is closely linked with the fate of Argyn, although they did not play such a large role as the Argyn. The Kerei [or at least the Achamail subgroup] participated in the campaign of Barak (1420) in Tashkent and Khujand. In 1723 the Kerei (as well as the Argyns) suffered relatively less than other peoples. In the wars of Muhammad Shaybani, there is mention of a tribe called Sakhiot, obviously the Kerei who had remained among the Uzbeks of Ferghana, Samarkand, Bukhara and Khiva." Tynyshbaev (1925)
  127. ^ G. Németh, A Hongfoglaló Magyarság Kialakulása, Budapest, 1930, 264-68, cited after P. Oberling, "Karāʾi", Encyclopedia Iranica, vol. XV, Fasc. 5 (2002), pp. 536–537.
  128. ^ Dunlop (1944:289), following Howorth, Unknown Mongolia (1913).
  129. ^ Malikov A. "92 Uzbek Tribes" in Official Discourses and the Oral Traditions from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries. Zolotoordynskoe obozrenie=Golden Horde Review. 2020, vol. 8, no. 3, pp. 515.
  130. ^ Ushnitsky, Vasily (2011). "Исторический диспут об этнической принадлежности найманов и кереитов". Проблемы востоковедения (2 (52)): 28–34. ISSN 2223-0564.
  131. ^ Хамидуллин, Салават. История башкирских родов. Гирей. Том 2. Часть 1. / С. И. Хамидуллин, Ю. М. Юсупов, Р. Р. Асылгу- жин, Р. Р. Шайхеев, Р. М. Рыскулов, А. Я. Гуме- рова, Г. Ю. Галеева, Г. Д. Султанова. – Уфа: ГУП РБ Уфимский полиграфкомбинат, 2014. – 528 с.: илл.
  132. ^ Трепавлов В. В. История Ногайской Орды. — М.: Восточная литература, 2002. стр. 499—504.
  1. ^ Rashid al-Din Hamadani grouping Keraites together with: Bekrin, Karluks, Kipchaks, Kyrgyz, Uyghur, Naiman, Öngüt, Tangut

Sources

[edit]