Wikipedia

Paeonia (kingdom)

"Paionia" redirects here. For the municipality in northern Greece, see Paionia (municipality). For the deme of ancient Attica, see Paeonidae.
Coin of Lykkeios (Lycceius), King of Paeonia (359–335 BC), depicting Herakles and the Nemean lion
Paeonians and the Kingdom of Macedon

In antiquity, Paeonia or Paionia (Ancient Greek: Παιονία, romanized: Paionía) was the land and kingdom of the Paeonians (or Paionians; Ancient Greek: Παίονες, romanized: Paíones). The exact original boundaries of Paeonia, like the early history of its inhabitants, are obscure, but it is known that it roughly corresponds to present-day North Macedonia,[1][2][3][4] and also to some parts of northern Greece, western Bulgaria[5] and southeasternmost Serbia.[6]

Ancient authors placed Paeonia south of Dardania, north of Macedon, west of the Thracian mountains, and east of the southernmost Illyrians of the Ohrid-Prespa basin.[7] It was separated from Dardania by the mountains through which the Vardar river passes from the field of Scupi (modern Skopje) to the valley of Bylazora (near modern Sveti Nikole). In the Iliad, the Paeonians are portrayed as allies of the Trojans. During the Persian invasion of Greece, the conquered Paeonians from as far as the Lake Prasias, including the Paeoplae and Siropaiones, were deported from Paeonia to Asia.[8] In 356 BC Paeonia was made a Macedonian vassal by Philip II,[9] who took advantage of the death of king Agis and campaigned against its northern neighbor. Down to 227 BC, at least seven Paeonian kings reigned, and during that period, Paeonia remained a distinct entity, either subject to Macedonia or independent.[10] In 227 BC, Antigonus Doson conquered the southern part of Paeonia ('Macedonian Paeonia'[11]) and ten years after Philip V of Macedon conquered the rest by capturing Bylazora.

The Paeonians next to the Odrysian Kingdom

Paeonian people

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Tribes

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The Paeonian tribes were:

Origin

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Some modern scholars consider the Paeonians to have been of either Illyrian,[20] Brygian/Phrygian,[21] Thracian,[22] or of mixed origins.[23] Linguistically, the very small number of surviving words in the Paeonian language have been variously connected to its neighboring languages – Illyrian and Thracian (and every possible Thraco-Illyrian mix in between),[24] Phrygian, as well as to Greek but with a great deal of Illyrian and Thracian influence as a result of their proximity.[25] According to Radoslav Katičić, the possibility that the Paeonians took part in the "great Greek migration" and remained behind on the route cannot be wholly ruled out.[26] Irwin L. Merker considers the Paeonians to be of Hellenic stock.[27]

There is relatively little mention of the Paeonians in the works of the ancient Greeks.[25] Homer[28] speaks of Paeonians from the Axios fighting on the side of the Trojans, but the Iliad does not mention whether the Paeonians were kin to the Trojans, and instead connects them to the Phrygians.[29] Homer calls the Paeonian leader Pyraechmes (parentage unknown); later on in the Iliad (Book 21), Homer mentions a second leader, Asteropaeus, son of Pelagon. Herodotus and Thucydides distinguish the Paeonians from the Thracians.[29] According to their national legend,[30] they were Teucrian colonists from Troy. Several eastern Paeonian tribes, including the Agrianes, clearly fell within the Thracian sphere of influence.

Appian wrote of a genealogy in which Paion, the eponym of the Paeonians, is the son of Autarieus, the eponym of the Autariatae, and father of Skordiskos and Triballos, the eponyms of two central Balkanic tribes, one Celtic and the other Thracian. This might connect the Paeonians with the Illyrian complex, although as Katičić suggests, Appian might not refer to the Paeonians but might refer instead to the Pannonians, since Appian uses the Paeonian name to denote that ethnic group as well.[29]

Pausanias tells us of another genealogy, which connects the Paeonians with the Peloponnesian Epeians and the Aetolians; Paion is said to be the son of Endymion and brother of Epeius and Aitolus.[29][31][32] This version, indeed, establishes a Greek affiliation for the Paeonians;[29] Anson writes that "this notice from Pausanias may suggest that at least by the second century AD the Paeonians were seen as part of the Greek community".[33]

Before the reign of Darius Hystaspes, they had made their way as far east as Perinthus in Thrace on the Propontis. At one time all Mygdonia, together with Crestonia, was subject to them. When Xerxes crossed Chalcidice on his way to Therma (later renamed Thessalonica), he is said to have marched through Paeonian territory. They occupied the entire valley of the Axios (Vardar) as far inland as Stobi, the valleys to the east of it as far as the Strymon and the country round Astibus and the river of the same name, with the water of which they anointed their kings. Pelagonia was used as a name for the westernmost part of Paeonia, while the north-westernmost part of Pelagonia was referred to as Derriopos.[34] Emathia, roughly the district between the Haliacmon and Axios, was once called Paeonia; and Pieria and Pelagonia were inhabited by Paeonians. As a consequence of the growth of Macedonian power, and under pressure from their Thracian neighbors, their territory was considerably diminished, and in historical times was limited to the north of Macedonia from Illyria to the Strymon.

Mythology

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Paeon's myth

In Greek mythology, the Paeonians were said to have derived their name from Paeon the son of Endymion.[35] Endymion of Elis, the lover of the goddess of the Moon (Selene), had three sons: Paeon, Epeios, and Aetolus; the eponymous ancestors of the Paeonians, Epeians, and Aetolians, respectively. Endymion, in order to give his kingdom to one of them, made them run a race in Olympia, where Epeios won and took the kingdom. Paeon left in disappointment to settle in the Upper Valley of Axios which was since called Paeonia.

In the Trojan War, the Paeonians "with ankylosed bows" (Iliad, II 848-850) "wearing helmets with horsetails" were allies of the Trojans, appearing to fight on their side, under King Pyraichmes and Asteropaeus.

Paeonian Kingdom

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Coin of Patraus, king of Paeonia 335-315 BC

In early times, the chief town and seat of the Paeonian kings was Bylazora (in modern Sveti Nikole municipality in North Macedonia) on the Vardar; later, the seat of the kings was moved to Stobi (near modern Gradsko).[36]

Subjugation of the Paeonians happened as a part of Persian military operations initiated by Darius the Great (521–486) in 513 – after immense preparations – a huge Achaemenid army invaded the Balkans and tried to defeat the European Scythians roaming to the north of the Danube river.[36] Darius' army subjugated several Thracian peoples, and virtually all other regions that touch the European part of the Black Sea, such as parts of nowadays Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, and Russia, before it returned to Asia Minor.[36][37] Darius left in Europe one of his commanders named Megabazus whose task was to accomplish conquests in the Balkans.[36] The Persian troops subjugated gold-rich Thrace, the coastal Greek cities, as well as defeating and conquering the powerful Paeonians.[36][38][39] At the time of the Persian invasion, the Paeonians on the lower Strymon had lost, while those in the north maintained, their territorial integrity.[citation needed]

At some point after the Greco-Persian Wars, the Paeonian princedoms coalesced into a kingdom centred in the central and upper reaches of the Axios and Strymon rivers, corresponding with today's central and eastern parts of North Macedonia and western Bulgaria. They joined with the Illyrians to attack the northern areas of the Kingdom of Macedonia. The Illyrians, who had a culture of piracy, would have been cut off from some trade routes if movement through this land had been blocked. They unsuccessfully attacked the northern defences of Macedonian territory in an attempt to occupy the region. In 360–359 BC, southern Paeonian tribes (then ruled by Agis) were launching raids into Macedon, (Diodorus XVI. 2.5) in support of an Illyrian invasion.

The Macedonian Royal House was thrown into a state of uncertainty by the death of Perdiccas III, but his brother Philip II assumed the throne, reformed the army (providing phalanxes), and proceeded to stop both the Illyrian invasion and the Paeonian raids through the boundary of the "Macedonian Frontier", which was the northern perimeter which he intended to defend as an area of his domain. He followed Perdiccas's succession in 358 BC with a campaign deep into the north, into Paeonia itself.[40][41][42][43][44][45] Paeonia was made a Macedonian vassal in 356 during the course of Philip's Balkan campaigns.[46] Although they retained their territory and the right to mint coins, the Paeonians were expected to provide both tribute and manpower for Macedonian military campaigns.[47] This reduced the Paeonian Kingdom then ruled by Lyppeius to a semi-autonomous, subordinate status, which led to a process of gradual and formal Hellenization of the Paeonians, who, during the reign of Philip II, began to issue coins with Greek legends like the Macedonian ones. A Paeonian cavalry contingent, led by Ariston, possibly brother of King Patraus and father of the later king Audoleon,[48] was attached to Alexander the Great's army. Alexander the Great wished to bestow the hand of his sister Cynane upon Langarus, king of the Agrianians, who had shown himself loyal to Philip II.

The daughter of Audoleon, a king of Paeonia, was the wife of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. In 279, when the Gauls defeated Ptolemy Ceraunus and got as far as Delphi, it is certain that Paeonia was overrun and held for a time by their chieftain Brennus, but in the wake of the Celtic invasion, Leon reestablished the Paeonian kingdom.[49] Antigonus Gonatas then annexed Paeonia into his kingdom.[50] Irwin Merker suggests that when Demetrios II and the Aetolian League were at war, "Dropion was involved as an ally of Aitolia."[51] Additionally he states that "When Demetrios or Antigonos Doson created the Macedonian Koinon he was imitated by his northern neighbor Dropion who hoped in this way both to modernize the constitution of his Kingdom and to increase the support of his subjects."[51] In 230 the Dardani under Longarus[52] captured Bylazora from the Paeonians. In 227 BC, Antigonus Doson conquered the southern part of Paeonia and founded the city of Antigoneia, and ten years after Philip V of Macedon conquered the rest by capturing Bylazora; after this Perseis and Astraion were founded. The citizens of Paeonian cities were not Macedonians but Paeonians. Only after the Roman conquest in 168 BC, Paeonia was integrated into Macedonia.[10]

Kings

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Kings of Paeonia

Mainline

  • Agis: founded the Paeonian kingdom; pretender to the Macedonian throne in a time of instability.[57]
  • Lycceius: joined anti-Macedonian coalition with Grabos II and Thrace in 356 BC.[58]
  • Patraus
  • Audoleon: reduced to great straits by the Autariatae, but was succoured by Cassander.[59]
  • Ariston[55]
  • Leon of Paeonia: consolidated and restored lost lands after the Gallic Invasions in 280/279 BC.[56]
  • Dropion: last known Paeonian king in 230 BC, of a dwindling kingdom.[56]

Others

  • Pigres: one of the two tyrant brothers which in 511 BC persuaded Darius I to deport the coastal Paeonians to Asia.[60]
  • Mantyes: one of the two tyrant brothers which in 511 BC persuaded Darius I to deport the coastal Paeonians to Asia.[60]
  • Dokidan: of the Derrones; reigned during the 6th century BC.[61]
  • Dokim: of the Derrones; reigned during the 6th century BC.[61]
  • Euergetes: of the Derrones; reigned c. 480–465 BC, known only from his coinage.[62]
  • Teutaos: reigned from c. 450–435 BC; known only from his coinage.[63]
  • Bastareus: reigned from c. 400–380/78 BC, known only from his coinage.[64]
  • Teutamado: reigned from 378 to 359 BC, known only from his coinage.[65]
  • Symnon: great ally of Phillip II from 348 to 336 BC.[66]
  • Nicharchos: reigned from 335 to 323 BC; son of Symon.[66]
  • Langarus: of the Agrianes; invaded the territory of the Autariatae in 335 BC in coalition with Alexander the Great.[67]
  • Dyplaios: of the Agrianes; reigned around 330 BC.[68]
  • Didas: allied Philip V of Macedon with 4,000 warriors from 215 to 197 BC.[61]

Foreign rulers

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Persian

  • Darius I: subjugated Paeonia in 511/2 BC.[36][69]
  • Xerxes: included Paeonians in vast Persian army of 481 BC, for the Invasion of Greece.[70]

Thracian

  • Sitalces: included Agrianes and Laeaeans in his Macedonian campaign in 429 BC.[71]

Culture

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See also: Paeonian language

The Paeonians included several independent tribes, all later united under the rule of a single king. Little is known of their manners and customs. They adopted the cult of Dionysus, known amongst them as Dyalus or Dryalus, and Herodotus mentions that the Thracian and Paeonian women offered sacrifice to Queen Artemis (probably Bendis). They worshipped the sun in the form of a small round disk fixed on the top of a pole. They drank barley beer and various decoctions made from plants and herbs. The country was rich in gold and a bituminous kind of wood (or stone, which burst into a blaze when in contact with water) called tanrivoc (or tsarivos). The women were famous for their industry. In this connection Herodotus[72] tells the story that Darius, having seen at Sardis a beautiful Paeonian woman carrying a pitcher on her head, leading a horse to drink, and spinning flax, all at the same time, inquired who she was. Having been informed that she was a Paeonian, he sent instructions to Megabazus, commander in Thrace, to deport two tribes of the nation without delay to Asia.

A passage in Athenaeus seems to indicate the affinity of their language with Mysian.[citation needed] The scanty remains of the Paeonian language do not allow a firm judgement to be made. On one side are Wilhelm Tomaschek and Paul Kretschmer, who claim it belonged to the Illyrian family, and on the other side is Dimitar Dečev, who claims affinities with Thracian. On the other hand, the Paeonian kings issued coins from the time of Philip II of Macedon onwards, bearing their names written in straightforward Greek. All the names of the Paeonian Kings that have come down to us are, in fact, explainable with and clearly related to Greek (Agis, Ariston, Audoleon, Lycceius, etc.), a fact that, according to Irwin L. Merker, puts into question the theories of Illyrian and Thracian connections. Irwin L. Merker considers the Paeonian language closely related to Greek (i.e., Hellenic) [73] or an ancient Greek dialect as he writes "on the basis of the Paionian names, we can say that there is no evidence that the Paionians did not speak a dialect of Greek".[74] Vladimir I. Georgiev suggested a Phrygian affiliation.[75]

An inscription, discovered in 1877 at Olympia on the base of a statue, states that it was set up by the community of the Paeonians in honor of their king and founder Dropion. Another king, whose name appears as Lyppeius on a fragment of an inscription found at Athens relating to a treaty of alliance, is no doubt identical with the Lycceius or Lycpeius of Paeonian coins.[76]

Military

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Paeonian cavalry

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Ariston was a member of the Paeonian royal house, possibly brother of King Patraus and father of the later king, Audoleon.[77] His service with Alexander the Great, like that of the Thracian Sitalces II and others, helped to ensure the loyalty of his nation to Macedon in the Alexander's absence to Persia. He was the commander of the unit of Paeonian cavalry. Consequently, around 150 cavalrymen, commanded by Ariston, crossed with Alexander's army into Asia Minor in 334.[78] Initially only one squadron strong, the Paeonians received 500 reinforcements in Egypt and a further 600 at Susa.[79] At the Battle of Gaugamela, the Paeonian cavalry was placed on the right flank with the sarissophoroi. In 331 BC, the Paeonian cavalry routed a large force of Persian cavalry near the Tigris, and Ariston personally slew the Persian leader Satropates; he then presented Alexander with the Persian's severed head. He asked Alexander for a gold cup as a reward for his feat, and the king publicly saluted him and drank to his health.[80][81]

Agrianian peltasts

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The Agrianes were armed with javelins and were the elite unit of Alexander the Great's light infantry. They fought under king Langarus against the Triballians in 335 BC,[82][better source needed] and succeeded in protecting the lands of Alexander and were thus rewarded with the right to govern themselves, a move that led to a long-lasting and most reliable alliance. At the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC), during Alexander the Great's conquest of Persia, the contingent of Agrianian peltasts numbered 1,000 men.

Decline

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After the Celtic invasion of the Balkans weakened the Paeonians, the political and military role of the Dardanians began to grow in the region. They expanded their state to the area of Paeonia which definitively disappeared from history.[83] In 230 the Dardani under Longarus[84] captured Bylazora from the Paeonians. Paeonia consolidated again but, in 217 BC, Philip V of Macedon succeeded in uniting and incorporating into his empire the separate regions of Dassaretia and Paeonia. A mere 70 years later (in 168 BC), Roman legions conquered Macedon in turn, and a new and much larger Roman province bearing this name was formed. Paeonia around the Axios formed the second and third districts respectively of the newly constituted Roman province of Macedonia.[85] Centuries later under Diocletian, Paeonia and Pelagonia formed a province called Macedonia Secunda or Macedonia Salutaris, belonging to the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum.

See also

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Paionia.

References

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  1. ^ Waterfield, Robin (2019). The Library, Books 16-20: Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the Successors. Oxford University Press. p. 428. ISBN 978-0198759881. Paeonia is roughly equivalent to the country currently known as the Republic of North Macedonia (the former FYROM).
  2. ^ Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2010). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
  3. ^ Reames, Jeanne (2008). Howe, Timothy (ed.). Macedonian Legacies. Regina Books. p. 239. ISBN 978-1930053564. Paeonia, roughly where the F.Y.R.O.M. is today.
  4. ^ Ovid; Green, Peter (2005). The Poems of Exile. University of California Press, 2005. p. 319. ISBN 9780520242609. Ovid was lax in his geography, not least over Paeonia (in fact roughly coextensive with the present Slav republic of Macedonia.).
  5. ^ "Paeonia". Encyclopædia Britannica online.
  6. ^ Yenne, Bill (2010-04-13). Alexander the Great: Lessons from History's Undefeated General. ISBN 9780230106406. The Agrianians were a Thracian people from the area that is now southern Serbia
  7. ^ Strabo, "Geography", 7, Frg.4, 9.5.1
  8. ^ The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period (google books)
  9. ^ Hammond, N.G.L.; Griffith, G.T. (1979). A History of Macedonia Volume II: 550–336 B.C. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 672. ISBN 9780198148142.
  10. ^ a b Hatzopoulos 2020, p. 41.
  11. ^ A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Wiley -Blackwell, 2011. Map 2
  12. ^ a b Early symbolic systems for communication in Southeast Europe, Part 2 by Lolita Nikolova, ISBN 1-84171-334-1, 2003, page 529, "eastern Paionians (Agrianians and Laeaeans)"
  13. ^ The Landmark Thucydides: A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian War by Thucydides, Robert B. Strassler, Richard Crawley, and Victor Davis Hanson, 1998, ISBN 0-684-82790-5, page 153, "... of them still live round Physcasb- and the Almopians from Almopia.
  14. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History, Martin Percival Charlesworth, ISBN 0-521-85073-8, ISBN 978-0-521-85073-5 Volume 4, Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean, C. 525 to 479 B.C, John Boardman, page 252, "The Paeonians were the earlier owners of some of these mines, but after their defeat in the coastal sector they maintained their independence in the mainland and coined large denominations in the upper Strymon and the Upper Axius area in the names of the Laeaei and the Derrones"
  15. ^ An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis: An Investigation Conducted by The Copenhagen Polis Centre for the Danish National Research Foundation by Mogens Herman Hansen and Thomas Heine Nielsen, 2005, ISBN 0-19-814099-1, page 854, ... Various tribes have occupied this part of Thrace: Bisaltians (lower Strymon valley), Odomantes (the plain to the north of the Strymon) ...
  16. ^ Thrace in the Graeco-Roman world, p. 112 but others claim that together with the Agrianes and Odomanti, at least the latter of which were with certainty Thracian, not Paeonian.
  17. ^ The Histories (Penguin Classics) by Herodotus, John M. Marincola, and Aubery de Selincourt, ISBN 0-14-044908-6, 2003, page 315, ... "was that a number of Paeonian tribes – the Siriopaeones, Paeoplae, ..."
  18. ^ The Histories (Penguin Classics) by Herodotus, John M. Marincola, and Aubery de Selincourt, ISBN 0-14-044908-6, 2003, page 452, "... Then he passed through the country of the Doberes and Paeoplae (Paeonian tribes living north of Pangaeum), and continued in a ..."
  19. ^ The Histories (Penguin Classics) by Herodotus, John M. Marincola, and Aubery de Selincourt, ISBN 0-14-044908-6, 2003, page 315, "... was that a number of Paeonian tribes – the Siriopaeones, Paeoplae, ..."
  20. ^ Katičić 2012, p. 119.
  21. ^ Katičić 2012, p. 151.
  22. ^ Susan Wise Bauer (2007). The History of the Ancient World: From the Earliest Accounts to the Fall of Rome. ISBN 0-393-05974-X, page 518: "... Italy); to the north, Thracian tribes known collectively as the Paeonians."
  23. ^ See: Encyclopædia Britannica, online edition.
  24. ^ Francesco Villari. Gli Indoeuropei e le origini dell'Europa. Il Mulino, 1997. ISBN 88-15-05708-0.
  25. ^ a b "The Ancient Kingdom of Paionia". Balkan Studies 6. 1965.
  26. ^ Katičić 2012, pp. 116–120: "The possibility, however, that they took a part in the great Greek migration and remained behind on the route, and consequently spoke a Greek dialect, or a lost Indo-European language closely related to Greek [i.e Hellenic], cannot be wholly ruled out."
  27. ^ Anson, Edward M. (2010). "Why Study Ancient Macedonia and What This Companion is About". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford, Chichester, & Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2. Merker, 'Ancient Kingdom of Paeonia', pp.36-93, accepts the Paeonians as Hellenes.
  28. ^ Iliad II, 848.
  29. ^ a b c d e Katičić 2012, pp. 116–120
  30. ^ Herodotus V, 13.
  31. ^ Μουτσόπουλος, Ν. Κ. (1998). "Oppidum celetrum: ο Λιμναίος οικισμός του Δισπηλιού Καστοριάς". Μακεδονικά. 31 (1). Society for Macedonian Studies: 1. doi:10.12681/makedonika.113. ISSN 2241-2018.
  32. ^ Pausanias 5.1, 3-5.
  33. ^ Anson, Edward M. (2010). "Why Study Ancient Macedonia and What This Companion is About". In Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. Oxford, Chichester, & Malden: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2. This notice from Pausanias may suggest that at least by the second century AD the Paeonians were seen as part of the Greek community
  34. ^ Hatzopoulos 2020, pp. 47–48.
  35. ^ Pausanias, 5.1.5; Smith "Paeon" 3.
  36. ^ a b c d e f Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (7 July 2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444351637. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  37. ^ The Oxford Classical Dictionary by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, ISBN 0-19-860641-9, page 1515, "The Thracians were subdued by the Persians by 516"
  38. ^ Howe & Reames 2008, p. 239.
  39. ^ "Persian influence on Greece (2)". Archived from the original on 24 July 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2014.
  40. ^ Raphael Sealey, A History of the Greek City States, 700–338 BC, University of California Press, 1976, p. 442, on Google books
  41. ^ Nicholas Geoffrey Lemprière Hammond, Guy Thompson Griffith, A History of Macedonia: 550–336 B.C, Clarendon Press, 1979
  42. ^ R. Malcolm Errington, A History of Macedonia, University of California Press, 1990
  43. ^ Carol G. Thomas, Alexander the Great in his World, Wiley-Blackwell, 2006
  44. ^ Simon Hornblower, The Greek world, 479–323 BC, Routledge, 2002
  45. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Library, 16.4, on Perseus
  46. ^ Hammond, N.G.L.; Griffith, G.T. (1979). A History of Macedonia Volume II: 550–336 B.C. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 672. ISBN 9780198148142.
  47. ^ Merker 1965, pp. 44–45
  48. ^ Heckel 2006, p. 246
  49. ^ Merker, Irwin L. (1965). "THE ANCIENT KINGDOM OF PAIONIA". Institute for Balkan Studies (Greece). 6 (1): 49–50. But in 279 the Galatians or Gauls (the Celtic tribes) appeared in Macedonia, defeated the Macedonians and got as far as Delphi and Thermopylai. It is certain that Paionia was overrun and held for a time by Brennus the Celtic chieftain....This, I think, quite clearly shows that Leon was king of Paionia in the wake of the Celtic invasions, and that he was the person responsible for the reestablishment of Paionian state.
  50. ^ Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2010). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. p. 220. ISBN 978-1-4051-7936-2.
  51. ^ a b Merker, Irwin L. (1965). "THE ANCIENT KINGDOM OF PAIONIA". Institute for Balkan Studies (Greece). 6 (1): 52. It was only during the reign of Demetrios II (239-229) that Aitolia and Macedonia were at war, the so-called War of Demetrios. I think that in this war Dropion was involved as an ally of Aitolia. ... When Demetrios or Antigonos Doson created the Macedonian Koinon he was imitated by his northern neighbor Dropion who hoped in this way both to modernize the constitution of his Kingdom and to increase the support of his subjects.
  52. ^ Hammond 1988, p. 338
  53. ^ Catalogue of Greek Coins: Thessaly to Aetolia by Percy Gardner, 2004, Front Matter: "... present to the money of Philip II. of Macedon, and Lycceius and Audoleon, kings of Paeonia, that they must be given ..."
  54. ^ A Guide to the Principal Gold and Silver Coins of the Ancients: From Circ. B. C. 700 to a. D. 1. (1895) by British Museum Dept. of Coins and Medals, 2009, page 62: "... of Athena, facing. Bee. AYAnA EONTOZ. Horse. Wt. 193.4 grs. Patraus and his son Audoleon reigned over Paeonia between B.C. 340 ..."
  55. ^ a b Polyaenus, Stratagems of War, 4.12.3, "Lysimachus conducted Ariston, son of Autoleon, to his father's kingdom in Paeonia; under pretence that the royal youth might be acknowledged by his subjects, and treated with due respect. But as soon as he had bathed in the royal baths in the river Arisbus, and they had set before him an elegant banquet, according to the custom of his country, Lysimachus ordered his guards to arm. Ariston instantly mounted his horse and escaped to the land of the Dardani; and Lysimachus was left in possession of Paeonia."
  56. ^ a b c d Pausanias, Description of Greece Phocis and Ozolian Locri, 10.13.1, "A bronze head of the Paeonian bull called the bison was sent to Delphi by the Paeonian king Dropion, son of Leon."
  57. ^ The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 6: The Fourth Century BC by D. M. Lewis, John Boardman, Simon Hornblower, and M. Ostwald, 1994, page 463: "Agis, king of Paeonians".
  58. ^ Catalogue of Greek Coins: Thessaly to Aetolia by Percy Gardner, 2004, Front Matter: "... present to the money of Philip II. of Macedon, and Lycceius and Audoleon, kings of Paeonia, that they must be given..."
  59. ^ A Guide to the Principal Gold and Silver Coins of the Ancients: From Circ. B. C. 700 to a. D. 1. (1895) by British Museum Dept. of Coins and Medals, 2009, page 62: "... Patraus and his son Audoleon reigned over Paaonia between B.C. 340 ..."
  60. ^ a b The Histories. Digireads.com. 2009. p. 199. ISBN 9781596258778. Retrieved 2014-10-15.[permanent dead link]
  61. ^ a b c bg:Пеония
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  73. ^ Merker, Irwin L. (1965). "THE ANCIENT KINGDOM OF PAIONIA". Institute for Balkan Studies (Greece). 6 (1): 35. But before we can really draw any picture of the Paionians, we must settle one problem, and that problem is, "Were the Paionians of Hellenic stock?" By the term "Hellenic stock" I do not mean that they were Hellenes in the same sense as the ancient Athenians or Korinthians were Hellenes. The Paionians were far too backward to be considered Hellenes in this sense. Rather I ask, "Did the ancestors of the Paionians and the ancestors of the Athenians and Korinthians enter the Balkan peninsula together from some common point of origin, speaking the same or a similar language and sharing a similar culture?" Naturally in the course of time each of these two groups would have developed along different lines.
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  85. ^ Livy xiv. 29.

Bibliography

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 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Smith, William, ed. (1870). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) Wikisource This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Paeonia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 20 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.